Southern Branch
of the
University of California
Los Angeles
Form L 1
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below
JIL 2 7
JIL 2
OCT 3 i
!d33
30
ff 194J
JUL 2 5 1941
AUG 1
***
15 ,94,
Form L-9-15m 11/27
TIN, SHEET-IRON AND
COPPER-PLATE WORKER
TIN, SrfEET-IRON
AND
COPPER-PLATE WORKER
A PRACTICAL WORKSHOP COMPANION
CONTAINING
RULES FOR DESCRIBING VARIOUS KINDS OF PATTERNS
USED BY TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE
WORKERS; PRACTICAL GEOMETRY;
Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids;
TABLES OF THE WEIGHTS AND STRENGTHS OF METALS AND
OTHER MATERIALS; TABLES OF AREAS AND CIRCUM-
FERENCES OF CIRCLES; COMPOSITION OF METALLIC
ALLOYS AND SOLDERS; WITH NUMEROUS VAL-
UABLE RECEIPTS AND MANIPULATIONS FOR
EVERY-DAY USE IN THE WORKSHOP
By LEROY J. BLINN
MASTER MECHANIC
NEW ENLARGED EDITION, TO WHICH HAS BEEN ADDED
MANY NEW PATTERN PROBLEMS
ILLUSTRATED BY 207 ENGRAVINGS
NEW YORK
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., Inc.
Publishers of Mechanical and Industrial Books
2 WEST 45™ STREET
1920
53754
Copyright by HENRY CAREY BAIRD & Co., Inc., 1920
Printed in the U. S. A.
s
PREFACE
THE present is a new and thoroughly revised edition ol
one of the most popular books on sheet-metal working
ever published in this country. It having been found
necessary to make a new set of electrotype plates and new
engravings — the old ones having been worn out by actual
use — it was determined to have the book re-edited and to
add to it, in the different departments, new, recent and
w necessary matter.
4 Inasmuch as geometrical problems never become obso-
\ lete and as pattern cutting is based on that science, the
HA"! original problems are as correct and useful as ever and
have therefore been retained. These have been aug-
mented by the supplementary problems which have been
incorporated to emphasize the modern system of triangu-
ir lation and to give some knowledge of modern skylight
ftj" work. As a result, that department of the book, valuable
heretofore, is now considerably improved.
The portion treating on metallic alloys and solders has
been entirely rewritten, so as to have a more systematic
arrangement and to bring it abreast with the best modern
X practice in this interesting and important field. Experts
); have carefully gone over the recipes and tables to insure
A their accuracy.
In all the other departments new matter has been added
and every effort has been made to render the entire work,
in the future, if possible, even more useful to the tin,
sheet-iron and copper-plate worker than in the past.
Reference to the many subjects treated will be rendered
easy by the very full table of contents and the complete
index.
' THE PUBLISHERS.
New York, April, 1920.
CONTENTS.
RULES FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS.
To describe an envelope for a cone ; To describe a frustum
of a cone ......... 1
To describe a can top or deck flange ..... 2
To describe a pattern for, or an envelope for a frustum of a
cone 3
To describe a pattern for a tapering oval article, to be in
four sections ......... 4
To describe a pattern for a tapering oval article, to be in
two sections ... ...... 7
To describe a pattern for a tapering oval article, to be in
two sections ......... 9
To describe a pattern for a tapering oval article (another
method) 11
To describe a pattern for a tapering oval, or oblong article,
the sides to be straight, with quarter-circle corners, to be
in two sections 13
To describe a pattern for a tapering oval, or oblong article,
the sides to be straight, one end to be a semicircle, the
other end to be straight, with quarter-circle corners, to be
in two sections ........ 14
To describe a pattern for a tapering oval, or oblong article,
the sides to be straight, with semicircle ends, to be in two
sections . . . . . . . . .16
To describe a pattern for a fish-kettle with straight sides . 17
To draw the plan of an oblong taper bath, the size of the
top and bottom, the height, and the slant at the head
being given ......... 18
To draw the plan of a hip-bath, or of a sitz-bath . . 20
To describe a frustum of an oblique pyramid . . .23
To describe without long radii a frustum of an oblique pyra-
mid, the plan of the frustum and its height being given . 26
(v)
vi CONTENTS.
To draw the pattern of a hood 28
Covering of circular roofs, etc. ; First method . . .30
Second method ; To cover a dome by the first method . 31
To cover a dome by the second method . . . .32
To ascertain the outlines of a course of covering to a dome
without reference to a section of the dome ; Covering of a
hipped-roof .33
To describe a pattern for a tapering square article . . 40
To describe a pattern for a tapering square article, to be in
two sections ; To describe a pattern for a tapering article,
the base to be square, and the top a circle, to be in two
sections -41
To describe a pattern for a tapering article, the base to be a
rectangle and the top square, to be in two sections . . 42
To describe a pattern for a tapering article, the base to be a
rectangle, and the top a circle, to be in two sections ; To
describe a pattern for a tapering article, the top and base
to be a rectangle, to be in two sections . . . .44
To describe a pattern for tapering octagon top or cover . 46
To describe a pattern for a miter-joint at right angles for a
semicircle gutter ........ 47
To describe a pattern for a miter-joint at any angle for a
semicircle gutter ........ 48
To describe a pattern for a miter-joint for an 0 G gutter at
right angles 49
To describe a pattern for a miter-joint for an 0 G cornice at
right angles ; also an offset 50
To describe a pattern for an octagon 0 G- lamp top or
cover . 52
To describe a pattern for a stand (aquarium stand, for in-
stance) the edge of which is a moulding . . . .53
To describe a T pipe at right angles 56
To describe a pattern for a T pipe at any angle . . .57
To describe a pattern for a T pipe, the collar to be smaller
than the main pipe ....... 59
To describe a pattern for a T pipe at any angle, the collar to
be smaller than the main pipe , .... 61
To describe a pattern for a T pipe at any angle, the collar to
be set on one side of the main pipe . . . .63
CONTENTS. vii
To describe the pattern for a T-piece formed by two equal
or unequal circular pipes (cylinders of equal or unequal
diameter) which meet at right angles . . . .64
To describe the pattern for the T formed by a funnel-shape
piece of pipe and a circular piece, the former being
square to the latter ; the diameter of the circular pipe
and the diameters of the ends of the funnel-shape pipe
and its length being given ...... 68
To describe a pattern for a pipe to fit a flat surface at any
angle, as the side of the roof of a building . . .73
To describe a pattern for a pipe to fit two flat surfaces, as
the roof of a building ....... 74
To describe the form of a "tapering piece" of piping, to
join two pieces of piping, which are both vertical, but not
in the same axis, and which are of different diameters . 75
To describe an elbow at right angles . . . . .78
To describe an elbow pattern at any angle . . . .79
To describe a pattern for an elbow in three sections . . 80
To describe a pattern for an elbow in four sections . . 82
To describe a pattern for an elbow in five sections . . 84
To describe a pattern for a tapering elbow . . . .87
To describe an oval boiler cover ; To describe a pattern for a
flange for a pipe that goes on the roof of a building . 89
To describe an octagon or square top or cover . . .90
To describe a steamer cover ...... 91
To describe an ellipse or oval, having the two diameters
given ; To draw an ellipse with the rule and compasses, the
transverse and conjugate diameters being given ; that is
the length and width 92
To draw an egg-shaped oval, having the length and width
given 93
To find the centre and the two axes of an ellipse . . 94
To find the radius and versed sine for a given frustum of a
cone 95
To draw a figure having straight sides and semicircular ends 96
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
From any given point, in a straight line, to erect a perpen-
dicular ; or, to make a line at right angles with a given
viii CONTENTS.
line ; When a perpendicular is to be made at or near the
end of a given line ; To bisect a given line (divide a line
into two equal parts) 97
To divide a line into any number of equal parts ; To do the
same otherwise ; To bisect any given angle . . .98
To trisect (divide into three equal angles) a right angle ; To
describe a triangle in a circle ; To find the centre of a
circle ; To find the length of any given arc of a circle . 99
To find the centre of a circle, or radius, that shall cut any
three given points, not in a direct line ; Through any
given point, to draw a tangent to a circle ; To draw from
or to the circumference of a circle lines tending towards
the centre, when the centre is inaccessible . . . 100
To describe an arc or segment of a circle of large radii ; Or
otherwise ; To describe a parabola, the dimensions being
given 101
To describe an elliptic arch, the width and rise of span being
given ; To obtain by measurement the length of any direct
line, though intercepted by some material object . . 102
To inscribe any regular polygon in a given circle ; To de-
scribe any regular polygon, the length of one side being
given 103
To form a circle equal in area to a given ellipse ; To con-
struct a square upon a given right line ; To form a square
equal in area to a given triangle 104
To form a triangle equal in area to a circle . . . .105
To form a square equal in area to a given rectangle ; To find
the length for a rectangle, whose area shall be equal to
that of a given square, the breadth of the rectangle being
also given ; To describe a circle of greatest diameter in a
given triangle 106
To bisect any given triangle ; To form a rectangle of greatest
surface in a given triangle ; To inscribe within a given
equilateral triangle three equal semicircles having their
diameters adjacent and equal . . . . . .1015
To inscribe in a given circle three equal semicircles having
their diameters adjacent . . . . . . .108
Decimal equivalents to fractional parts of lineal measurement 108
CONTENTS. ix
MENSURATION OF SURFACES.
Definitions of arithmetical signs used in the following calcu-
lations ; To measure or ascertain the quantity of surface
in any right -lined figure, whose sides are parallel to each
other 110
To find the area of a triangle when the base and perpendic-
ular are given ; Any two sides of a right-angled triangle
being given, to find the third ; "When the hypothenuse
and base are given, to find the perpendicular . . . JH1
Wlwn the hypothenuse and the perpendicular are given, to
find the base ; To find the area of a regular polygon ; To
find the area of a regular polygon, when the side only is
given 112
3Pable of angles relative to the construction of regular poly-
gons with the aid of the sector, and of coefficients to facil-
itate their construction without it ; also, of coefficients to
aid in finding the area of the figure, the side only being
given 113
The circle and its sections ; Observations and definitions . 113
Gefieral rules in relation to the circle ; Application of the
rules to practical purposes 114
Any chord and versed sine of a cjrcle being given, to find the
diameter ; To find the length of any arc of a circle . .115
To find the area of the sector of a circle ; To find the area
of a segment of a circle ....... 116
To find the area of the space contained between two concen-
tric circles or the area of a circular ring ; To find the area
of an ellipse or oval ; To find the circumference of an
ellipse or oval ........ 117%
To find the convex surface of a cylinder ; To find the convex**"^
surface of a right cone or pyramid ; To find the convex
surface of a frustum of a cone or pyramid . . .118
To find the convex surface of a sphere or globe . . .119
MENSURATION OF SOLIDS AND CAPACITIES OF BODIES.
To find the solidity or capacity of any figure in the cubical
form ; To find the solidity of cylinders . . . .119
To find the contents in gallons of cylindrical vessels ; To find
x CONTENTS.
the solidity of a cone or a pyramid ; To find the solidity of
the frustum of a cone 120
To find the contents in United States standard gallons of the
frustum of a cone ; To find the solidity of the frustum of
a pyramid ..... ... 121
To find the solidity of a sphere . . . . . .122
TABLES OP WEIGHTS, ETC.
Weight of square rolled iron, from } inch to 12 inches, and
1 foot in length ; Weight of flat rolled iron, from i x |
inch to 1 x 6 inches 123
Weight of round rolled iron, from } inch to 1 2 inches in
diameter, and 1 foot in length . . . . . .124
Weight of a square foot of wrought iron, copper and lead,
from ^g to 2 inches thick . . . . . .125
Weight of copper bolts, from J to 4 inches in diameter and
1 foot in length 126
TABLES OP THE CIRCUMFERENCE OP CIRCLES, TO THE NEAR-
EST FRACTION OF PRACTICAL MEASUREMENT; ALSO, THE
AREAS OP CIRCLES, IN INCHES AND DECIMAL PARTS ;
LIKEWISE IN FEET AND DECIMAL PARTS AS MAY BE
REQUIRED.
Rules rendering the tables more generally useful . .127
Sizes of tinware in form of frustum of a cone ; Pans ; Dish
kettles and pails ; Coffee pots ; Dippers . . .135
Measures ; Wash-bowls ; Druggists' and liquor dealers'
measures . . . . . . . . .136
Capacity of cylinders in United States gallons . . .137
Decimal equivalents of the fractional parts of a gallon ; Ex-
planation of the tables 143
Specific gravity . . . . . . . . .145
Table showing the specific gravities of technically important
bodies (metals, stones, varieties of earths, woods, seeds,
fluids) 146
Heat 147
Latent heat of various substances ; Specific heat of different
substances; Fusing points of the principal metals and
other elements employed in alloys . . . . .148
CONTENTS, xi
Relative internal heat-conducting power of bodies ; Table of
effects of heat upon bodies ; Expansion of metals by heat 149
Comparative radiating or absorbent or reflecting powers of
substances ; Tempering 150
To temper by the thermometer ; To temper brass or to
draw its temper ; To temper drills ..... 151
To temper gravers ; Mixtures for tempering . . .152
Water; Composition of water . . , . . .153
Boiling point of water ....... 154
Specific gravity and weight of water 155
Effects produced by water in its natural state . . .156
Air ; Effects produced by air in its natural, and also in its
rarefied state ......... 157
Table of expansion of atmospheric air by heat . . .158
Manufacture of tin plate . . . . . . .159
Quality of tin plate ; To recognize a content of lead in tin ;
Crystallized tin plate . • 163
Size, length, breadth and weight of tin plates . . . 164
Tin roofing and tin work . . . . . . .165
Table showing the lengths and diameters of pipes, made
from sheets, and also the amount contained in one box ;
Semicircular gutters ; Galvanized iron ; Mouldings of
galvanized iron 166
American lap weld iron boiler flues, manufactured by the
Reading Iron Company ; Calibre and weights of fountains
or aqueduct pipes . . . . . . . .169
Calibre and weight of lead pipe ; To ascertain the weights
of pipes of various metals, and any diameter required . 170
Application of the rule ; Weight of a square foot of sheet
iron, copper and brass as per Birmingham wire gauge . 171
Gas pipes ; Table of the diameter and length of gas pipes
to transmit given quantities of gas to branch pipes and
burners ; Services for lamps . . . . . .172
Weight of a superficial foot of plates of different metals
in pounds ; Recapitulation of weights of various sub-
stances .......... 173
Expansion of cast and wrought iron ; Table showing the
figures by which the weight of the pattern has to be
multiplied to obtain the weight of the casting . .174
xii CONTENTS.
Shrinkage of castings 175
Speed of saws running 10,000 feet per minute on the rim ;
Rules for calculating speeds, etc. . . . . .176
PRACTICAL RECEIPTS.
Japanning and varnishing . 178
White japan ground ........ 179
Gum copal 180
To japan or varnish white leather ; Black grounds . . 181
Black japan ; Brunswick black ; Blue japan grounds ; Scar-
letjapan 182
Yellow grounds ; Green japan grounds ; Orange-colored
grounds; Purple japan grounds 183
Black japan ; Japan black for leather ; Transparent japan ;
Japanners' copal varnish ; Tortoise-shell japan . . 184
Paintingjapan work ; Japanning old tea trays . . . 185
Japan finishing 186
VARNISHES — MISCELLANEOUS.
Chief resins employed in the manufacture of varnishes . 188
Solvents of the various resins . . . . . . 1 90
Spirit varnishes ; Essence varnishes ; Oil varnishes . .191
Lacquer 192
Copal varnishes . . . . . . . .193
Cabinet varnish ; Table varnish ; Copal varnish for inside
work ; Best body copal varnish for coach makers, etc. . 195
Copal polish ; White spirit varnish ; White hard spirit
varnishes ; White varnish . . . . . .196
Soft brilliant varnish ; Brown, hard spirit varnishes ; To
prepare a varnish for coating metals ; To varnish articles
of iron and steel ........ 197
Varnish for iron work ; Black varnish for iron work ;
Bronze varnish for statuary ; Amber varnishes . .198
Amber varnish, black ; Amber varnishes . . . .199
Black varnish ; Varnish for certain parts of carriages ;
Coach varnish : Mahogany varnish ; Varnish for cabinet-
makers ; Cement varnish for watertight luting ; The var-
nish of Watin for gilded articles ..... 200
Cheap oak varnish ; Varnish for wood-work ; Dark varnish
CONTENTS. xiii
for light wood-work ; Varnish for instruments ; Varnish
for the wood toys of Spa ; Varnishes for furniture . . 201
To French polish 202
Furniture polishes ; Furniture gloss ; Furniture cream, oils
and pastes 203
Etching varnishes ; Varnish for engravings, maps, etc. ;
Varnish to fix engravings or lithographs on wood ; Var-
nishes for oil paintings and lithographs ; Varnish for oil
paintings ; Beautiful varnish for paintings and pictures. 204
Milk of wax ; Crystal varnishes 205
Italian varnishes ; Size, or varnish, for printers ; Mastic
varnishes ; India rubber varnishes .... 206
Black varnish for harness ; Boiled oil or linseed oil varnish ;
Dammar varnish ; Common varnish ; Water-proof var-
nishes 208
Varnishes for balloons, gas bags, etc. ; Gold varnish ; Wain-
scot varnish for house painting and japanning . . 209
Iron work, black ; Black japan varnish ; Leather varnish ;
Varnish for smooth moulding patterns ; Fine black var-
nish for coaches ........ 210
LACQUERS.
Gold lacquer ; Red spirit lacquer ; Pale brass lacquer ;
Lacquer for tin ; Lacquer varnish ; Deep gold-colored
lacquer 211
Lacquers for pictures, metal, wood or leather ; Directions
for making lacquer ; Lacquer for dipped brass and for
bronzed brass ; Deep gold-colored lacquer ; Gold-colored
lacquer for brass not dipped and dipped . . . 212
Good lacquer for brass ; Lacquer for dipped brass ; Good
lacquer ; Pale lacquer for tin plate ; Red lacquer for
brass ; Pale lacquer for brass ; Best lacquer for brass ;
Color for lacquer ; Lacquer for philosophical instru-
ments; Soap lacquers 213
Imitation of Japanese lacquer . . . . . .214
MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS.
Armenian or diamond cement • . .215
xlv CONTENTS.
Cement for mending earthen and glassware; Cement for
stoneware ; Iron rust cement . . . .216
Composition for making architectural ornaments in relief;
Varley's mastic; Electrical and chemical apparatus
cement ; Cement for iron tubes, boilers, etc. . . . 217
Cement for ivory, mother of pearl, etc. ; Cement for holes
in castings ; Cement for coppersmiths and engineers ; A
cheap cement; Plumbers' cement; Cement for bottle
corks ; China cement .... 218
Cement for stone structures ; Roofing cement ; Ammonia-
shellac cement . ... 219
Cement for leather ; Marble cement; A good cement; (Je-
ment for marble-workers and coppersmiths ; Transparent
cement for glass ; Cement to mend iron pots and pans . 220
Cement to render cisterns and casks water-tight ; Cement
for repairing fractured bodies of all kinds ; Cement for
cracks in wood 221
Cement for joining metals and wood ; Gasfitters' cement ;
Impervious cement for apparatus, corks, etc. ; Cement for
fastening brass to glass vessels ; Cement for fastening
blades, files, etc. ; Hydraulic cement paint ; Sorel's ce-
ments ; London mastic cement ..... 222
Keene's marble cement ; Martin's cement ; Parian cement;
Lowitz's cement for the protection of wood and stone
against moisture ........ 2?3
IMPORTANT METALLIC ALLOYS.
Alloys of copper and zinc — Brass and similar alloys . . 224
Color of copper-zinc alloys ; Composition of various copper-
zinc alloys 225
Alloys of copper and tin ; Gun metal ; Steel bronze or
Uchatius bronze ; Bell metal ; Speculum metal ; Art
bronze 226
Phosphor bronze ; Silicon bronze ; Manganese bronze . 227
Delta metal ; Silveroid ; Cobalt bronze . 228
Aluminium bronze ........ 229
Alloys of copper, zinc and nickel, German silver, argentan
or pakfong ; Britannia metal 230
CONTENTS. tv
Composition of various kinds of Britannia metal ; Readily
fusible alloys 231
Alloys of the noble metals ; Various alloys ; Yellow brass
for turning ; Red brass for turning ; Red brass to turn
freely ; Best red brass for fine castings ; Rolled brass ;
Hard brass for casting ; Bell metal ; For bells of clocks ;
Metal for journal boxes ; Bearing metals for locomotives 232
Brasses for locomotive side rods ; Brasses for locomotive
driving boxes ; Queen's metal ; Hard white metal ;
Metal for taking impressions ; Rivet metal; Bullet metal ;
Bath metal ; Cock metal ; White metals . . . 233
Expansive metal ; Bronze for gilding ; Blanched copper ;
Ormolu ; Stereotype metal ; Type metal ; Artificial gold 234
Solders ; Composition of soft solders .... 235
Hard solders ; Solder for gold ; White solder for raised
Britannia ware ; Solder for steel joints ; Solders for
aluminium 236
Solder for aluminium bronze ; To solder platinum . . 237
Metallic cement ; To color soft Bolder .... 238
To join small band saws ; To make muriate of zinc ; To pre-
pare borax for brazing ; Soldering iron and steel . . 239
Joints 241
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS.
Paint for coating wire work ; Razor paste ; Cutting glass . 244
Prepared liquid glue ; Liquid glues ; Marine glue ; Dex-
trine or British gum ; Liquid glue that keeps for years . 245
Sealing wax for fruit cans ; Browning gun barrels ; Silver-
ing powder for coating copper ; To prevent rusting ;
Quick, bright dipping acid for brass which has been or-
molued ; Dipping acid ....... 246
Good dipping acid for cast brass ; Dipping acid ; Ormolu
dipping acid for sheet brass or cast brass ; To prepare
brass work for ormolu dipping ; To repair old nitric acid
ormolu dips ; Vinegar bronze for brass .... 247
Brown bronze dip ; Green bronze dip ; Aquafortis bronze
dip ; Olive bronze dip for brass ; Brown bronze paint for
copper vessels ; Bronze for all kinds of metals ; Bronze
xvi CONTENTS.
paint for iron or brass ; To bronze gun barrels ; Silvering
byheat ........ . 248
Mixture for silvering ; To separate silver from copper ;
Solvent for gold ; Composition used in welding cast steel ;
Cast iron cement ; Beautiful and durable bronze upon tin
and tin alloys ......... 249
Bronzing gas fixtures ........ 250
To bronze plaster of paris figures ; To cleanse plaster of paris
busts and statuettes ; Coppering of iron rollers for calico
printing .......... 251
To tin copper and brass ; To tin iron sauce-pans . . 252
Cold tinning ; To tin small articles ..... 253
Galvanizing brass and «opper ; Cheap and quick method of
coloring metajs ........ 254
Electroplating pewter surfaces ...... 255
Brown tint for iron and steel ; Enamelling metals . . 256
Enamel for watch faces ; To polish gold and silver lace . 257
Cleaning tinware ; Solvents for rubber .... 258
Etching solution for brass ; Compound for casts . . 259
Imitation gold varnish ; Inks for marking tinware ; Red ink
for rubber stamps ........ 260
Ink for brass stamps ; Indelible ink for stamps ; Resharpen-
ing files ; To repair broken belting ..... 261
OP MATERIALS.
Bar of iron ; Bridges ; Floors ; Roofs ; Beams ; Cast 'voc
beams; Beams ........ 262
Models proportioned to machines ... 264
List of metals arranged according to their strength . . 265
List of woods arranged according to their strength ; Strength
of hempen cords ; Rule for finding the weight in pounds
which a hempen rope will support ..... 266
Method of increasing the suspensive power of timber ;
Strength of rectangular columns or timbers in resisting
compression ..... ... 268
Cohesive power of bars of metal one inch square, in tons ;
Relative strength of cast and malleable iron ; Method of
testing metals . ... 269
CONTENTS xvii
TABLES OF STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Strength of chains; Common close-linked cable chain;
Steel-linked cable chain 272
Strength and weight of short-linked crane chain . . 273
Strength and weight of steel-linked cable chain . . 274
Strength of iron wire ropes; Strength and weight of
hempen ropes 275
Strength of drawn lead pipes of the ordinary standard
weights 276
Strength of timbers to resist crushing strains, in pounds
and tons per square inch ...... 277
Table of the strength, extensibility and stiffness of
metals, cast iron being 1, or unity .... 278
Table of the strength, extensibility and stiffness of
woods, cast iron being 1, or unity; Effect of remelt-
ing on the strength of cast iron 279
Table showing the average crushing load of different
materials, or the weight under which they will crum-
ble ; Table showing the tensile strength, or the strain
that will pull different metals asunder on a straight
puU 280
Table showing the tensile strength of different kinds of
wood . 281
SUPPLEMENTARY PATTERN PROBLEMS.
Introduction 282
Pattern for a chimney base or an article circular at the
top and rectangular at the base and both centrally
situated to each other 283
Pattern of an article circular at the top and rectangular
at the base, second case .... . 285
Pattern of an article circular at the top and rectangu-
lar at the base, third case 286
Pattern for an offsetting transition fitting with a square
base and round top ....... 287
xviii CONTENTS
Pattern for a double offsetting transition fitting with a
square base and round top ..... 289
Pattern for a furnace boot . ..... 290
Pattern for a square to round roof collar . . 295
Pattern for an offsetting furnace boot . . . 296
Pattern for a "Y" branch 300
Pattern for a taper joint ...... 303
Patterns for flat skylights 305
Patterns for hipped skylights 310
Index . 321
TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE
WORKER.
RULES FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS.
A CONE.
To describe an Envelope for a Cone. — Let ABI (Fig. i)
be the given cone. From I as centre, with the radius IA,
describe the arc CD; make CD equal in length to the
circumference of AB (which can be found by a reference
to the table of the Circumferences of Circles ; draw the
lines CI and DI ; then the figure GDI will be that of the
required surface of the cone.
Edges for folding or lapping to be allowed, drawing the
lines parallel to CI and DI, as shown by the dotted lines.
To describe a frustum of a Cone. — Let AB (Fig. 2) equal
diameter of large end ; FH diameter of small end ; GK
altitude. Produce AF and BH until they meet at E ; with
E as centre, and the radii EF and EA, describe the arcs
CD and IJ ; set off CD equal to that portion of the cir-
(1)
2 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
A 1 _ . B
Fig. 2.
cumference of AB required for a pattern ; draw the lines
CI and DJ, cutting the centre at E.
Edges for folding or lapping to be allowed, drawing the
lines parallel to CI and DJ, as shown by the dotted lines.
OBS. — The term altitude denotes perpendicular height ;
as from G to K in Fig. 2.
CAN TOP OR DECK FLANGE.
To describe a Can Top or Deck Flange. — Let AB (Fig. 3)
FRUSTUM OF A CONE. 3
equal diameter of can, or base of a flange; CD diameter
of opening in the top; FG altitude. Produce AC and BD
until they meet at E ; with E as centre, and the radii ED
and EB, describe the curves IJ and HK ; set off IJ equal
to the circumference of the base AB ; draw the lines IH
and JK, cutting the centre at E.
Edges to be allowed.
FRUSTUM OF A CONE.
To describe a Pattern for, or an Envelope for « Frustum
of a Cone. — Describe the right angle ABE (Fig. 4) ; make
BD the altitude ; draw the line CD at right angle to BE ;
make AB equal one-half the diameter of the large end, CD
one-half the diameter of the small end ; draw a line cutting
the points A and C, and the line BE; with E as a centre
and the radii EC and EA describe the arcs FG and HI ;
set off FG equal to that portion of the circumference of
4 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
the smallest end required for a pattern, draw the lines HF
and IG, cutting the centre at E.
Edges for folding or lapping to be allowed, drawing the
lines parallel to HF and IG.
When the work is to be riveted, punch the holes for the
rivets on the lines HF and IG.
When the work is to be wired, or a flange laid off, it
must be allowed as shown by the dotted lines over the arc
HI.
OVAL.
To describe a pattern for a Tapering Oval Article, to
be in Four Sections. — Describe the bottom, the length and
breadth required as in Fig. 5 ; describe the sides as in Figs.
6 and 7.
Describe the right angle ABC, Fig. 6 ; make BF the alti-
cude, draw the line DF at right angle to BC ; make DF
equal to AB in Fig. 5 ; make AB equal to DF and the taper
required on a side, draw a line cutting the points A and
D, and the line BC.
On any right line, as AB in Fig. 7, with the radii CD
and CA, describe the arcs EF and CD, set off EF equal
'.o EBF in Fig. 5 ; draw the lines CE and DF, cutting the
centre at B.
OVAL. 5
Edges to be allowed.
Fig. 6, make EF equal to CD in Fig. 5 ; make GB equal
to EF, and the taper required on a side ; draw a line cut-
ting the points G and E, and the line BC.
On any right line, as AB in Fig. 7, with the radii HL--
and LK, describe the arcs IK and GH ; set off IK equal
to FDG in Fig. 5, draw the lines GI and HK, cutting the
centre at L.
Edges to be allowed.
The taper must be equal on all sides.
6 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Fig. 8.
OVAL. 7
To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval Article, to be
in Two Sections. — Describe the bottom, the length and
breadth required as in Fig. 8 ; then describe the body as in
Figs. 9 and 10.
Describe the right angle ABC, Fig. 9 ; make BE the alti-
Fig. 9.
tude, draw the line DE at right angle to BC ; make DE
equal to AB in Fig. 8 ; make AB equal to DE and the taper
required on a side, draw a line cutting the points A and D,
and the line BC.
On any right line, as AB in Fig. 10, with the radii CE
and CL, describe the arcs EF and CD ; set off EF equal
8 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
to FEE in Fig. 8 ; draw the lines CE and DF, cutting the
centre at B.
Fig. 9, make GE equal to CD in Fig. 8 ; make FB equal
m
Fig. 10.
to GE, and the taper required on a side ; draw a line cut-
ting the points F and G, and the line BC; with the radius
HG and, in Fig. 10, E and F as centres, cut the lines CB
and DB, as at L and M; with L and M as centres describe
the arcs FK and EH ; also, the arcs DI and CG ; set off
FK and EH, equal to ED in Fig. 8 ; draw the lines IK
and GH, cutting the centres at M and L.
Edges to be allowed.
The taper must be equal on all sides.
OVAL. 9
To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval Article, to be
Fig. n.
Fig. ...
in Two Sections. — Describe the bottom, the length and
breadth required as in Fig. n, then describe the body as
10 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
A
OVAL. 11
in Figs. 12 and 13 ; describe the right angle ABC, Fig. 12 ;
make BE the altitude, draw the line DE at right angle to
BC ; make DE equal to FC in Fig. 1 1 ; make AB equal to
DE and the taper required on a side ; draw a line cutting
the points A and D, and the line BC.
On any right line, as AB in Fig. 13, with the radii CD
and CA, describe the arcs CD and EF, set off CD equal to
CD in Fig. 1 1 ; draw the lines EC and FD, cutting the
centre at B.
Fig. 12, make FE equal to AC in Fig. n; make GB
equal to FE, and the taper required on a side, draw a line
cutting the points G and F, and the line BC, with the ra-
dius JF, and in Fig. 13, D as a centre, cut the line FB, as
at K ; with K as a centre describe the arc DH ; also, the
arc FG; set off DH equal to BC in Fig. n ; draw the line
GH, cutting the centre at K. Fig. 12, make HE equal to
GE in Fig. 1 1 ; make IB equal to HE, and the taper re-
quired on a side ; draw a line cutting the points I and H,
and the line BC ; with the radius KH, and in Fig. 13, C as
a centre, cut the line EB, as at L ; with L as a centre, de-
scribe the arc 1C ; also, the arc JE ; set off 1C equal to
DE, in Fig. 1 1 ; draw the line JI, cutting the centre at L.
Edges to be allowed.
The taper must be equal on all sides.
To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval Article. —
Describe the bottom, the length and breadth required as
in Fig. 14; describe the body as in Figs. 15 and 16; de-
scribe the right angle ABC, Fig. 15 ; make BE the altitude,
draw the line DE at right angle to BC ; make FE equal
HG in Fig. 14 ; make GB equal to FE and the taper
required on a side ; draw a line cutting the points G and F,
and the line BC.
On any right line, as AB in Fig. 16, with the radii HF
and HG, describe the arcs CD and EF, set off CD equal
12 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
to IGF in Fig. 14; draw the lines EC and FD, cutting the
\centre at G.
Fig. 15, make DE equal to AB in Fig. 14 ; make AB
•equal to DE, and the taper required on a side ; draw a line
cutting the points A and D, and the line BC ; with the
Fig. i+
radius CD, and, in Fig. 16, with I and H as centres, cut the
lines GL and GM, as at M and L ; with M and L as cen-
tres, describe the arcs HI and HI ; also, the arcs JK and
JK; set off HI and HI equal to IB, in Fig. 14; draw the
lines JH and KI, cutting the centres at L and M. Fig.
OVAL.
13
15, make IE equal to CD in Fig. 14 ; make JB equal to IE,
and the taper required on a side, draw a line cutting the
points J and I, and the line BC with the radius KI, and in
Fig. 1 6, O and N as centres, cut the lines LB and MB, as at
R and S ; with R and S as centres, describe the arcs NO
and NO, also, the arcs PQ and PQ ; set off NO and NO
equal to BD in Fig. 14 ; draw the lines QO and PN, cutting
the centres at S and R.
Edges to be allowed.
The taper must be equal on all sides. The pattern can
be cut in any number of sections.
•g- -9-
Fig. ,7.
To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval or Oblong
Article, the Sides to be Straight with Quarter Circle Cor-
ners, to be in Two Sections. — Describe the bottom, the
length and breadth required as in Fig. 17; the body as in
14 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Figs. 1 8 and 19; describe the right angle ABC, Fig. i8>
make BE the altitude, draw the line DE at right angle to
BC ; make DE equal to EC in Fig. 1 7 ; make AB equal to
DE and the taper required on a side, draw a line cutting
the points A and D and the line BC.
Fig. 19, make AD and BE equal to AD in Fig. 18 ; make
AB equal to AB in Fig. 1 7 ; draw the lines DM and EN,
Fig. 18 with the radius CD, and in Fig. 19, A and B as cen-
tres, cut the lines DM and EN, as at M and N ; with M
and N as centres, describe the arcs BC and AI ; also, the
arcs EF and DH ; set off BC and AI equal to BC, in Fig.
17 ; draw the lines HI and FC, cutting the centres M and
N. Draw the lines FG and CL at right angle to FN ; also,
the line KH and JI at right angle to HM ; make CL and
JI equal to one-half of CD, in Fig. 17, draw the lines KJ
and GL at right angle to KH and FG.
Edges to be allowed.
The taper to be equal on all sides.
To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval or Oblong
Article, the Sides to be Straight, one End to be a Semi-
circle, the other End to be Straight with quarter Circle Cor-
ners, to be in Two Sections. — Describe the bottom, the
length and breadth required as in Fig. 20 ; the body as in
Figs. 21 and 22; describe the right angle ABC, Fig. 21;
make BG the altitude, draw the line DG at right angle to
BC ; make DG equal to AF in Fig. 20 ; make AB equal to
DG and the taper required on a side ; draw a line cutting
the points A and D, and the line BC ; make FG equal t»
GD in Fig. 20 ; make EB equal to FG and the taper re-
quired on a side ; draw a line cutting the points E and F
and the line BC.
Fig. 22, make AC and BD equal to DA in Fig. 21 ; make
CD and AB equal to BC in Fig. 20 ; draw the lines CK and
DL in Fig. 21 ; with the radius CD, and, in Fig. 22, A as a
centre, cut the line CK as at K; with K as a centre, de-
OVAL.
15
scribe the arc AI, also, the arc CJ ; set off AI equal to AB,
in Fig. 20, draw the line JI, cutting the centre at K.
Fig. 21, with the radius HF,and in Fig. 22, B as a centre,
cut the line DL, as at L ; with L as a centre, describe the
Fig. 22.
arc BF, also the arc DE ; set off BF equal to CD, in Fig.
20; draw the line EF, cutting the centre at L; draw the
lines FG and EH at right angles to EL; make FG, equal
to DE, in Fig. 20 ; draw the line HG at right angle to EH.
16 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Edges to be allowed.
The taper to be equal on all sides.
To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval or Oblong
Article, the Sides to be Straight, with Semi-cicrle Ends, to
be in Two Sections. — Describe the bottom, the length and
24
Fig. 25.
breadth required as in Fig. 23 ; the body as in Figs
and 25.
Describe the right angle ABC, Fig. 24 ; make BE the
altitude ; draw the line DE at right angle to BC ; make
DE equal to AB in Fig. 23 ; make AB equal to DE and the
taper required on a side ; draw a line cutting the points A
OYAL. 1?
and D, and the line BC, Fig. 25 ; make AC and BD equal
to AD in Fig. 24.
Make AB and CD equal to DC in Fig. 23 ; draw the lines
CI and DJ, Fig. 25 ; with the radius CD and, in Fig. 25, A
and B as centres, cut the lines CI and DJ as at I and J ;
with I and J as centres, describe the arcs AH and BF;
also, the arcs CG and DE ; set off AH and BF equal to
CB, in Fig. 23.; draw the lines GH and EF, cutting the
centre at I and J.
Edges to be allowed.
The taper to be equal on all sides.
In a large article it may be more convenient to lay out
the end-pieces to fit the semi-circles, and join them to the
sides, as at D and C, in Fig. 23.
To describe a Pattern for a Fish-kettle with Straight
Sides. — Suppose Fig. 24 to be the shape of hollowing side
and end-views, and Fig. 26 the shape of the kettle. Divide
the length of curve from centre to end in an indefinite
number of equal points, or take the length of curve with a
strip of tin (which is the most accurate), then draw a line
FG on a sheet of tin ; set off the points equal in number
to those round the curve at each side of the centre, which
will be the length of the cover before it is hollowed (of
course edging on must be allowed for). The same process
must be gone through with regard to the width, but it is
necessary to obtain the length of the curve at A, and the
point taken as before and set off, as shown at H (Fig. 26).
This done, we find that the sides of the pattern are a little
curved, though they are wanted straight when finished.
These curves may be made with the compasses, but to be
perfectly true there should be a greater number of points,
BCDE, taken, and curve drawn through the points by free
hand. This process of obtaining a pattern cannot fail ; it
is certain to be right so long as the hollowing is done right.
The same process will answer in describing patterns of
2
15 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLAVE WORKER,
Fig. 26.
kettles with curved sides, /. <?., a true oval or ellipse. A
round article will also be made the proper size, if the
length of curve be taken at which the cover or bottom must
be finished.
To draw the Plan of an Oblong Taper Bath, the Size
of the Top and Bottom, the Height, and the Slant at the
Head being given. — To draw DEFC (Fig. 29), the plan of
the top : Draw AB equal to the given length of the top,
and through A and B draw lines perpendicular to AB.
Make AE and AD each equal to half the width of the top at
the head of the bath, and BF and BC each equal to half the
width of the top at the toe ; and join EF and DC. Next
from E mark off along EF and ED equal distances EG and
EH, according to the size of the round corner required at
the head. Through G and H draw lines perpendicular to EF
OVAL.
19
and ED respectively, intersecting in O, and with O as
centre and OG as radius, describe an arc HG to form the
corner. The round corners at DFC, etc., are drawn in like
manner.
Fig. 27.
To draw the plan of the bottom, let the angle A"A'A
(Fig. 27) be the angle of the inclination of the slant at the
head, and A'A" the length of the slant. Through A"
Fig. 29.
draw A"A perpendicular to AA', then AA' will be the dis-
tance between the lines, in plan, of the top and bottom at
the head. Make AA' (Fig. 29) equal to AA' (Fig. 27) and
A'B' equal to the length of the bottom. Through A' and
20 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
B' draw lines each perpendicular to AB ; make A'E' and
A'D' each equal to half the width of the bottom at the
head, and B'F' and B'C' equal to half the width of the
bottom at the toe. Join E'F' and D'C'. The round corner
of the bottom at the head must be drawn in proportion to-
the round corner of the top at the head, and this is done
as follows : Join EE' and produce it to meet AB in P and
join HP by a line cutting D'E' in H ; make E'G' equal to
E'H', and complete the corner from centre O' obtained as.
was the centre O. Draw the other corners in a similar
way, and this will complete the plan required. The D'
corner is like the E corner ; the corners also at F and C
correspond. Similarly with the E' and D', and F' and C'
corners.
If the length of the bath is given and the length of
slant at (but not its inclination) head or toe, the distance
AA' can be found by drawing two lines A"A, A'A (Fig. 27}
perpendicular to one another and meeting in A, and mak-
ing AA" equal to the given height ; then, with A" as
centre and A"A', the given length of the slant at the head,
as radius, describe an arc cutting AA' in A'. Then AA'
is the distance required. Similarly (Fig. 28) the distance
BB' can be found.
To draw the Plan of a Hip-bath or of a Sitz-bath. —
Fig. 30 is a side elevation of the bath, drawn here only to-
make the problem clearer, not because it is necessary for
the working.
The bottom of a hip-bath or a sitz-bath is an ordinary
oval. The portion X'F of the top is parallel to the bottom
A'B', and the whole XX' top, the portion FXE of the bath
being removed, is also an ordinary oval. By the plan of
the bath is meant the plan of XX'B'A' portion of it ; no
more being required for the drawing of the pattern of the
bath.
We will first suppose the given dimensions to be those-
OVAL.
21.
of the bottom and the XX' top of the bath, also height of.
the bath in front.
First draw A'D'B'C' (Fig. 31) the plan of the bottom by-
Fig. 8, p. 6. To draw the plan of the XX' top (Fig. 30):
Fig. 30.
set off OA and OB each equal to half the given length of
that top, and OC and OD each equal to half its given-
width. The plan of the XX' top can now be drawn as.
was that of the bottom. This completes, as stated above,.
all that is necessary of the plan of the bath to enable its-
pattern to be drawn.
If the length of the XX' top (Fig. 30) is not given, but
ihe inclination of the slant at front and back, these incli-
S3 TiN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER,
nations being the same, the required length can be deter-
mined as follows :
Make the angle AA'E (Fig. 32) equal to the given incli-
nation. Through A' draw A'H perpendicular to AA' and
equal to the given height of the bath in front ; through H
draw HX parallel to AA' and cutting A'E in X, and draw
XA perpendicular to AA'; then AA' will be the distance
in plan, at back and front, between the curve of the bot-
tom and the curve of the XX' top. Make A A' (Fig. 31)
and BB' each equal to AA' (Fig. 32) ; then AB will be the
length required.
B
Fig- 33-
If the length of the XX' top of the bath (Fig. 30) is
not given, nor the inclination of the slant at front and
back, but only the length of the slant at front, the required
length can be ascertained as follows :
Draw two lines XB, B'B perpendicular to one another
and meeting in B; make BX equal to the given height of
the bath in front, and with X as centre, and radius equal
to the length of the slant at the front, describe an arc
cutting BB' in B'. Make A'A and B'B (Fig. 31) each equal
to BB' (Fig. 33), then AB is the length wanted. The
remainder of the plan can be drawn as above described.
OVAL. »
By a little addition to Fig. 32 we get at the back portion,
of the side elevation of the bath. It will be useful to do-
this. Produce A'X and make A'E equal to the slant at
back, which must, of course, be given. Then on the
plan (Fig. 31), E being the meeting point of the end and
side curves of the oval ADBC, draw EF perpendicular to-
AB. Make XF (Fig. 32) equal to AF (Fig. 31); join
FE ; this completes the elevation required.
To describe a Frustum of an Oblique Pyramid. — I_
Given the plan of the frustum and its height.
Let ABCDD'A'B'C' (Fig. 34) be the plan of the frus-
tum (here of a square pyramid). Produce A A', BB', etc.,.
the plans of the edges to meet in a point V ; this point is.
the plan of the apex of the pyramid of which the frustum
is a part. Join O, the centre of the square which is the
plan of the large end of the frustum, to V. The line OV
will pass through o', the centre of the plan of the small
-24 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
end ; OO' will be the plan of the axis of the frustum, and
OV the plan of the axis of the pyramid of which the frus-
tum is a portion.
Draw XX parallel to OV ; through V draw VV perpen-
dicular to XX and cutting it in v. Make vx equal to
the given height of the frustum, and through x draw xx
parallel to XX; through O draw OQ perpendicular to XX
Fig- 35-
36-
and meeting it in Q, and through O' draw O' Q' perpen-
dicular to XX and cutting xx in /. Join Q / and pro-
duce it to intersect v V in V. Next make va, vb, vc, vd,
equal to VA, VB, VC, VD respectively ; join a, b, c, and
</toV'by lines cutting xx in points a' b' <? and (f ; aa' ,
bV, etc., are then the lengths of the edges of the frustum.
To draw the pattern with the seam at AA' : Draw VA
OVAL. 25
(Fig. 35) equal to V a (Fig. 34) ; with V as centre and
V b ^Fig. 34) as radius describe an arc b, and with A as
centre and AB (Fig. 34) as radius describe an arc inter-
secting arc b in B; with V'^ (Fig. 34) as radius and V as
centre describe an arc c, and with BC (Fig. 34) and B.'
as centre describe an arc intersecting the arc c in C..
Next with V d and V a (Fig. 34) as radii and V as centre
describe arcs d and a ; with C as centre and radius CI>
(Fig. 34) describe an arc intersecting arc d in D ; and
with DA (Fig. 34) as radius and D as centre describe an-
arc intersecting the arc a in A. Join A, B, C, D, and A to-
V ; make AA', BB', CC', DD' respectively equal to ad, bb',.
cS,dd', (Fig. 34), and join AB,BC, CD, DA, A'B',B'C', C'DV
etc. Then ABCDAA'D'C'B'A' is the pattern required.
The dotted circles (Fig. 34) through the angular points
of the plans of the ends show the plans of the ends of the-
frustum of the oblique cone which would envelop the
frustum of the pyramid. From the similarity of the con-
struction above to that for the pattern of a frustum of an
oblique cone, it will be evident that the edges of the frus-
tum have been treated as generating lines of the frustum,
of the oblique cone, in which the frustum of the pyramid
could be inscribed.
Should it be inconvenient to draw XX in conjunction
with the plan of the pyramid, draw XX quite apart, and from
any point v in it draw v V perpendicular to XX ; make vx
equal to the height of the frustum and draw xx parallel to-
XX. Make va, vb, vc, vd equal to VA, VB, VC, VD (Fig.
35) respectively ; and make xa', xb', xcf, xd' equal to VA',
VB', VC', VD', (Fig. 34), respectively. Join aa', bb' , c<f
and dd' by lines produced to meet vV in V, and pro-
ceed as above stated.
II. Given the dimensions of the two ends of the frus-
tum, the slant of one face and its inclination (the slant of
26 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
the face of a pyramid is a line meeting its end lines and
perpendicular to them).
Draw (Fig. 36) a line EE" equal to the given slant,
make the angle E"EE' equal to the given inclination and
let fall E"E perpendicular to EE'. Draw ABCD (Fig.
34), the plan of the large end of the frustum, and let BC
be the plan of the bottom edge of the face whose slant is
.given. Bisect BC in E and draw EE' perpendicular to
BC and equal to EE' (Fig. 36). Through E' draw B'C'
parallel to BC ; make EC' and E' B' each equal to half the
length of the top edge of the BC face, through C' and B'
draw C'D' and B'A' parallel to CD and BA j make C'D'
and B'A' each equal to B C' ; join D'A', also AA', BB',
•CC and DD' : this will complete the plan of the frustum.
E'E" (Fig. 36) is the height of the frustum. The re-
mainder of the construction is now the same as in I.
To describe without Long Radii a Frustum of an Oblique
37-
fyramid, the Plan of the Frustum and its Height being given.
—Let ABCDD'A'B'C' (Fig. 37) be the plan of the frus-
tum. From any point E in BC draw EE' perpendicular
to BC and B'C' of the frustum. Draw E'E" perpendic-
ular to EE' and equal to the height (which either is
OVAL. 37
given or can be found as in II. of last problem), and join
EE", then EE" is the true length of a slant of the face BC
B'C' of the frustum. Join DC' and find its true length
(DC") by drawing C'C" perpendicular to DC' and equal to
the height of frustum and joining DC". Next join D'A and
B'A ; through D' and B' draw lines D'A", B'B" perpen-
dicular to D'A and BA respectively, and make D'A" and
B'A" each equal to the given height of the frustum ; join.
Fig. 38.
AA" and AB", then AA" and AB" are the true lengths of
D'A and B'A respectively. ,
To draw the pattern of the face BCB'C draw EE'
(Fig. 38) equal to EE" (Fig. 37), and through E and
E' draw BC and B'C' perpendicular to EE'. Make EC,
EB, E'C' and E'B' equal to EC, EB, E'C' and E'B'
(Fig. 37) respectively ; join CC' and BB' ; this completes
the pattern of the face. The patterns of the other faces
are found as follows :
With C' (Fig. 38) and C as centres and DC" and CD
(Fig. 37) as radii respectively, describe arcs intersecting
•-28 TIN, ^BEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
.in D ; join CD, draw C'D' parallel to CD and equal to
•CD' (-Fig. 37) ; and join DD'. With D' and D (Fig.
38) as centres and A A" and DA (Fig. 37) as radii respec-
tively, describe arcs intersecting in A ; join DA, draw D'A'
parallel to DA and equal to D'A' (Fig. 37) as radii respec-
tively, describe arcs intersecting in A ; join DA, draw D'A;
parallel to DA and equal to D'A' (Fig. 37), and join A to
A'. Next with B' and B as centres and AB" and BA
(Fig. 37) respectively as radii, describe arcs intersecting
in A ; join BA and draw B'A' parallel to BA and equal
to B'A' (Fig. 37). Join AA', and this will complete the
.pattern required.
To draw the 'Pattern of a Hood. — The plan of the hood
4s necessarily given, or else the dimensions from which to
-draw it. Also, the height of the hood, or the slant of one
-of its faces. The hood is here supposed to be a body of
unequal taper with top and base parallel, but not a frustum
-of an oblique pyramid.
Let ABCDA'B'C'D' (Fig. 39) be the given plan of the
hood fa hood of three faces), AD being the "wall line,"
AB and DC perpendicular to AD and BC parallel to it ;
OVAL.
29
also let the length of FC", a slant of face BB'C'C, be
given. Draw C'F perpendicular to BC and through C'
draw C'C" perpendicular to C"F, and with F as centre and
radius equal to the given length, describe an arc cutting
C'C" in C". Join FC"; then C'C" is the height of the
hood which we need. If the height .of the hood is given
instead of the length FC", make C'C" equal to the height
and join FC", which will be the true length of FC'.
Next, through C' draw C'E perpendicular to CD; draw
C'C" perpendicular to C'E, make C'C" equal to the height
and join EC". Now produce C'B' to meet AB in G ; draw
Fig. 40
B'B" perpendicular to B'G and equal to the height and
join GB".
To draw the pattern of the hood : Draw FC' (Fig. 40)
equal to FC" (Fig. 39) ; through F and C' draw BC and
B'C', each perpendicular to FC'; make FB equal to FB (Fig.
39) ; make FC equal to FC (Fig. 39) and C'B' equal to C'B'
(Fig. 39). Join BB' and CC'; then BB'C'C will be the
pattern of the face, of which BB'C'C (Fig. 39) is the plan.
To draw the pattern of the face C'D'DC (Fig. 39) : With
C' and C (Fig. 40) as centres and EC" and CE (Fig. 39)
as radii respectively, describe arcs intersecting in E. Join
30 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
CE and produce it, making CD equal to CD (Fig. 39),
and through C draw C'D' parallel to CD and equal to C'D'
'vFig. 39). Join DD', then C'CDD' is the pattern of the
face of which C'CDD' (Fig. 39) is the plan. With B' and B
as centres and radii respectively equal to B"G and BG
(Fig. 39), describe arcs intersecting in G. Join BG and
produce it, making BA equal to BA (Fig. 39), and through
B' draw B'A' parallel to BA and equal to B'A' (Fig. 39).
Join AA' and the pattern for the hood is complete.
Covering of Circular Roofs, etc. — Circular roofs may be
covered upon two different principles :
First Method. Assume the vertical section, or axis, to be
divided into a number of equal parts, and the roof, or
figure, cut by planes through the points of division par-
DOME COVERS.
31
allel to the base ; and then consider the portions of the
figure as so many frustums of a cone ; the surface of each
frustum can then be determined as by Fig. 41, p. 30.
Second Method. Divide the circumference of the base
into a number of equal parts, and assume sections to be
made perpendicular through these points of division ; then
estimate the surface of each of these divisions on the sur-
face of the figure.
71? cover a Dome by the First Method. — Let ABC (Fig.
41) be the section of a dome. Draw the axis DB; pro-
duce to J ; divide the curve of one-half the figure into
0
Fig. 42.
equal parts, as EFG and H, the width of these divisions
being the width required by that of the metal with which
32 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
the dome is to be covered; produce AE, EF, FG, GH
and HB severally, until they intersect the axis BD : then
[for example] from the point I, with the radii IG and IF,
describe the curves GM, FN ; then set off that portion of
the circumference of the base FL required for a pattern to
cover the course FG.
In the same manner, the covering for the other portion
can be found.
To cover a Dome by the Second Method— Let ABC, Fig.
42, be the section of a dome ; then the length of a course
«r covering is obtained as follows: The length of the
course BF is equal to the curve AB, and EG the breadth
of it j join ED, and the lines i, 2, 3 and 4, intersected
thereoy, will be the half breadth (for the vertical BD) of
trie course at the corresponding lines on BF, through which
points a line can be drawn which will give the form of the
course required.
DOME COVERS. 33
To ascertain the Outlines of a Course of Covering to a
Dome, without reference to a Section of the Dome. — Let AB,
Fig. 43, be the breadth of the course. Bisect it at B by
the perpendicular CE ; make BE equal to the length of the
arc from the base of the dome to the top of it (which may
be found either by measurement or calculation); divide
the semi-circle ACD into any number of equal parts, and
draw the lines parallel to BD ; divide BE into the same
number of equal parts, and draw lines parallel to AD ;
mark ordinates on each side of BE ; as i, 2, 3 and 4 equal
to the lines of BCD, and a curve drawn through their ter-
minations i, 2, 3 and 4 on both sides will give the outline
of the course.
Covering of a Hipped Roof. — In Fig. 44, abed is the
plan of a building 'to be covered, by a hipped roof. To
draw the plan of the roof bisect the angles of the parallel-
ogram, and the bisectors meeting in e and / will form the
plans of the hip-lines, and the line joining e and _/will be
the plan of the ridge. Let it now be required to project
the elevation from this plan. Draw any horizontal, as AB,
Fig. 45, and the perpendiculars from c, e,f, d, cutting AB
in g, h, /',/, and produce h and ; indefinitely. Produce the
perpendicular at e until it reaches // then it will be clear
that k I is the width of the roof trusses (at k I and m n),
which would be at right angles to a b and c d.
Draw k' I' (Fig. 46) equal to k I in Fig. 44, and at the
middle point G, draw the perpendicular o p equal to the
real height of the truss, which is, of course, a matter de-
pendent on the taste or defined purpose of the architect.
This triangle will then be the shape of the truss at this
point, and is the section across the roof.
Make h q and * r in Fig. 45 equal to o p in Fig. 46.
Draw g q, q r and r /, which will complete the elevation,
and this will also be the longitudinal section through the
ridgt
3
34 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
We now have to find the real length of the hip. To do-
this, draw/j, Fig. 44, equal to op, Fig. 46, and at right
Fig. 44.
angles iofd. Join ds, then the right-angled triangle, dfs,
is the true shape of the hip truss. This will be understood
C' o i'
Fig. 46.
by cutting a piece of cardboard of the shape described and
placing it on its edge, d f. Then it will be seen that d s
will be the length of the hip.
HIPPED ROOF. 3?
In Developing the Covering of this Roof it will, of course,
be understood that the surface will consist of four planes,
which will meet at the hip-lines. Now it has already been
shown that the ends are triangles, of which a e c and bfd
are the plans ; the length of lines a c and b d remain un-
altered, but the real length of c e, a e, bf, df, has been
proved to be d s. Therefore on db and a c construct isos-
celes triangles, having d s for the two remaining sides ;
these triangles, then, ate and b n d, are the true shape of
the coverings of the ends of the roof. Now from c and d,
with radius c /, describe arcs cutting the perpendiculars k
and m in v and w. Join d w, v c, and w v. Then the
trapezoid c v w d '^ the development of one of the planes
forming the side of the roof-covering.
The same length set off on the perpendiculars In will
give the points x y, which will complete the fourth plane.
To find the form of the hip when the roof is a groined
one : It will be clear that if a spectator stands on the plat-
form of a railroad at the side of a semicircular arch by
which a road is carried over it, he will then see that, while
the face or elevation of the arch, where it crosses the rail-
road at right angles, is semicircular, its span being, of
course, the diameter of tlie circle, of which it is half; the
length from the springing near which he is standing, to the
most distant springing (that is, the one on the opposite of
the line at the other end of the arch) will be much longer;
yet the arch there is not any higher, although its span, thus
taken crosswise, is longer, because the diagonal of a square
or other rectangle is longer than any one of its sides.
The principle on which to find the curve which would
reach from the springing at which the spectator is standing,
to the one referred to, is also shown in Fig. 47.
On a b describe a semicircle, and from the points i, 2,
3, 4 erect perpendiculars cutting the semicircle in i', 2', 3',
4', or mark off any divisions in the diagonal, and from
36 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
them draw perpendiculars to a b. Now from the points
where the lines i', 2', 3', 4', etc., cut a c draw lines per-
pendicular to a c ; make each of these equal in height to
those correspondingly lettered in the semicircle, and the
47-
curve drawn through their extremities will be the form re-
quired.
In Fig. 48 ABCD is the plan of a building to be cov-
ered by a groined roof. The arch, the springing of which
is AB and CD, is a semicylinder. The arch which has its
HIPPED ROOF. 37
springing in AC and BD, being of the same height but of
wider span, is semi-cylindroid.
A cylindroid is a solid body of the character of a cylin-
der ; but whilst in a cylinder all sections taken at right
angles to the axis are circles, in the cylindroid all such sec-
tions are ellipses. It is, in fact, z. flattened cylinder. The
Fig- 48.
curve of the groin is then generated by the penetration of
a cylindroid and cylinder.
On AB describe the semicircle which represents the face
of the arch, at the ends AB and CD, and divide it into any
number of equal parts, a, b, c, etc. It is only necessary to
use the quadrant, as throughout the working the measure-
ments are the same on each side. Draw the diagonals AD
and BC. From a, b, c, d, ^,/draw lines perpendicular to
53
38 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
AB, cutting the diagonal AD in a', V ', <? , d' , e',f, and set
off the same distances on the other half of the diagonal.
From these points draw lines at right angles to AC, and
passing through it in points 1,2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9, 10, n.
Mark off on the perpendicular 6 the height 6f, equal to the
height of the semicircle/, and on the perpendiculars 5, 4,
4, 3, 2, i, mark off in succession the heights of the perpen-
diculars e, a,f, c, d, a, as contained between the semicircle
and its diameter AB.
Set off the same heights on the corresponding perpen-
diculars, on the other side of 6 f, and the curve traced
through these points will be a semi-ellipse, which is the
section of the semi-cylindroid forming the arch of which
AC and BD are the springings.
We now proceed to find the curve of the groin ; and it
will be evident that although the span is still further in-
creased in length, the height of the different points in the
curve will be the same as in both the previous elevations.
The span then of the arch at the groin is the diagonal AD
(or BC) to which the divisions a, ft, c, d, e,f, have alreadv
been transferred from the semicircle, and from these the
lines were carried at right angles to AC, on which the
height of the points in the curve were set off.
These points, viz., a', b', c' , d', <?', /', in the diagonal,
then, will be seen to be common to both arches, since they
are the plans of the points in the roof where the cylindrical
and cylindroidal bodies penetrate each other. At these
points, therefore, draw lines perpendicular to the diagonal,
and mark off on these the heights of the perpendiculars in
the semicircle from which the points on which they stand
were deduced. These extremities being connected, the
curve so traced is the groin curve, and will give the shape
for the centering of the groin, as the semicircle and semi-
ellipse will for those used in the elevations of the arches.
It now only remains to develop the surfaces of these
HIPPED ROOF.
39
arches ; that is, to find the shape of tin, zinc or lead which
would cover the roof of a building, when formed as here
described.
The student is advised to work this study on a large
scale on cardboard, and then to cut out the separate parts,
which he can afterwards join at their edges, thus con-
structing an accurate model of the roof required.
As regards Fig. 49 draw any straight line, and, com-
49-
mencing at A, set off on it the distances into which the curve
AC (Fig. 48) is divided — (measuring on the curve, not on
the springing line) — namely, the distances A, a b c, etc.
At the points on the straight line thus marked, draw
Fig. 5°-
perpendiculars ; make the middle one equal to 6f; those
on e e equal to 5 e ; those on d d equal to 4 d ; those on c c
40 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKEIi.
equal to 3 c ; those on b b equal to 2 b, and those on a a
equal to i a.
Join the extremities of these perpendiculars, and the
curves meeting in a point, and joined by the original
straight line, will form the development of the covering
of the cylindroidal arch.
Fig. 50 is the developemeut of the semicylindrical arch.
As this is worked in precisely the same manner as the last,
but taking the measurements from the semicircle, no further
instructions are deemed necessary.
SQUARE.
T0 describe a Pattern for a Tapering Square Article. —
Erect the perpendicular line GE (Fig. 51); draw the
line AB at right angle to GE ; make EF equal to the slant
height, and draw the line CD parallel to AB ; make AB
i-n length to one side of the base ; make CD equal in
SQUARE.
4i
length to one side of the top or smallest end ; draw the
lines AG and BG, cutting the points AC and BD; with G
as a centre and the radii GC and GA, describe the arcs KM
and JI ; set off on the arc JI, JA, BH, and HI equal in
length to AB, and draw the lines JG, HG, and IG, also,
the lines JA, BH, HI, and KC, DL, LM.
Edges to be allowed.
To describe a Pattern for a Square Tapering Article, to
be in Two Sections. — Erect the perpendicular line EF(Fig.
52) equal to the slant height of the article; draw the line
F G
S 52-
AB at right angle to EF ; draw the line CD parallel to
AB ; make AB equal in length to one side of the base ;
make CD equal in length to one side of the top or smaller
end ; draw the lines AC and BD ; C and D as centres, with
a radius equal to one-half the difference of the two ends,
as from B to G, describe the arcs I and H ; draw the right
angle lines IAJ and HBK; set off JA and KB equal to
FB, and draw the lines JL and KM at right angles to JA
and KB ; also, the lines LC and MD at right angles to LJ
and MK.
Edges to be allowed.
SQUARE BASE WITH A CIRCULAR TOP.
To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Article, the Base tt
42 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
be Square, and the Top a Circle, to be in Two Sections, —
Erect the perpendicular line NF (Fig. 53) ; draw the line
AB at right angle to NF; make EF equal to the slant
height, and draw the line CD parallel to AB ; make a AB
equal in length to one side of the base; make CD equal in
length to one-fourth the circumference of the top, and draw
the lines AC and BD ; C and D as centres, with a radius
equal to one-half the difference of the two ends describe the
arcs I and H ; draw the right-angle lines IAJ and HBK ;
set off JA and KB equal to FB, and draw the lines JN and
KN at right angles to JA and KB; N as a centre, with the
radius NE, describe the arc LEM.
Edges to be allowed.
RECTANGLE BASE WITH A SQUARE TOP.
To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Article, the Base to
be a Rectangle and the Top Square, to be in Two Sections. —
Erect the perpendicular line KC (Fig. 54); draw the line
AB at right angle to KC ; make KC equal to the slant
height, and draw the line DE parallel to AB ; make AB
equal in length to the longest side of the base ; make DE
RECTANGLE BASE WITH A SQUARE TOP.
43
equal in length to one side of the top ; draw the lines AD
and BE ; make CG equal to one-half the shortest side of
the base ; D and E as centres, with a radius equal to one-half
the difference of the top and the shortest side of the base,
as from G to F, describe the arcs J and I ; draw the right-
angled lines JAL and IBM ; set off AL and BM equal in
44 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
length to CG, and draw the lines MN and LO at right
angle to BM and LA ; also, the lines NE and OD at right
angle to NM and OL.
Edges to be allowed.
RECTANGLE BASE WITH A CIRCULAR TOP.
To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Article, the Base to
be a Rectangle, and the Top a Circle, to be in Two Sections.
• — Erect the perpendicular line DC (Fig. 55); draw the line
AB at right angle to DC ; make CE equal to the slant
height, and draw the line FG parallel to AB ; make AB
equal in length to the longest side of the base ; make FG
equal in length to one- fourth the circumference of the top ;
draw the lines AF and BG ; make CK equal to one-half
the shortest side of the base \ erect the line LG parallel to
EC; F and G as centres, with the radius KL, describe the
arcs I and H ; draw the right-angled lines HBN and IAM ;
set off BN and AM equal in length to CK, and draw the
lines MD and ND at right angles to MA and NB ; D as a
centre, with the radius DE, describe the arc OEP.
Edges to be allowed.
RECTANGLE.
To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Article, the Top and
Base to be a Rectangle, to be in Two Sections. — Erect the
perpendicular line FE (Fig. 56); draw the line AB at right
angle to FE ; make FE equal to the slant height of the
article, and draw the line CD parallel to AB ; make AB
equal in length to the longest side of the base ; make CD
equal in length to the longest side of the top ; draw the
lines AC and BD ; make GH equal in length to the shortest
side of the base ; make JI equal in length to the shortest
side of the top ; draw the line HI ; also, erect the line KI
parallel to FE ; C and D as centres, with the radius HK,
describe the arcs M and L ; draw the right-angled lines LBO
and MAN • set off BO and AN equal in length to EH,
and draw the lines OR and NP at right angles to NB and
NA ; also, the lines RD and PC at right angles to RO and
PN.
Edges to be allowed.
•«? TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
Fig- 56-
OCTAGON.
To describe a Pattern for Tapering Octagon Top or Cover,
— Erect the perpendicular line GE (Fig. 57); draw the
line AB at right angle to GE ; make FE equal to the slant
height of the article, and draw the line CD parallel to AB ;
make AB equal in length to one of the longest sides of
the base ; make CD equal in length to one of the longest
sides of the top, and draw the lines AG and BG, cutting
OCTAGON. 47
the points AC and BD ; G as a centre, with the radii GC
and GA, describe the arcs SO and PN ; set off QR, HJ
and LN equal to AB ; set off PQ, RA, BH and JL equal
in length to one of the shortest sides of the base ; draw the
lines PS, QT, RU, etc., cutting the centre at G; draw the
lines PQ, QR, ST, TU, etc.
Edges to be allowed.
57-
GUTTER MITER JOINTS.
To describe a Pattern for a Miter Joint at Right Angles
for a Semicircle Gutter. — Let the semicircle ACB (Fig. 58)
be the breadth and depth of the gutter ; draw the line AB :
draw the lines AF and BE at right angle to AB : draw
the line DE parallel to AB ; make DF equal to AB,
and draw the line FE ; divide the semicircle into any
number of equal parts ; from the points draw lines parallel
48 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
to AF, as i, 2, 3, etc., then set off the line AB (Fig. 59)
equal in length to the semicircle ACB ; erect the lines BD
and AC at right angle to AB ; set off on the line AB (Fig.
59) the same number of equal distances as in the semi-
A
3
A 10 8 8 7
Fig. 58.
fi 5 4 3
'g 59-
I 3
circle; from the points draw lines parallel to BD, as i, 2,
3, etc., make BD equal in length to AF (Fig. 58), and AC
equal in length to BE ; also, each of the parallel lines
bearing the same figure, as i, 2, 3, etc. ; then a line traced
through the points will form the pattern required.
MITER JOINTS.
To describe a Pattern for a Miter Joint at any Angle for a
Semicircle Gutter. — Let ABC (Fig. 60) be the breadth and
depth of the gutter ; draw the line AC ; draw the lines
EG and DH, the angle required ; draw the line ED, cutting
the points E and D ; divide the semicircle into any num-
ber of equal parts; from the points draw lines parallel to
AE, as i, 2, 3, etc. Then set off the line AB (Fig. 61)
equal in length to the semicircle ABC ; erect the lines AC
and BD at right angle to AB ; set off on the line AB, the same
number of equal distances as in the semicircle ABC (Fig. 60) ;
from the points draw lines parallel to BD, as i, 2, 3, etc.
MITER JOINTS.
Fig. 60.
Fig. 61.
Make BD equal to EA, and AC equal to DC ; also, each
of the parallel lines bearing the same figures as i, 2, 3, etc. ;
then a line traced through the points will form the
pattern.
To describe a Pattern for a Miter Joint for an O G Gutter
at Right Angles. — Let ABCD (Fig. 62) be the given gutter ;
divide the curved line BC into any number of equal parts ;
from the points draw lines parallel to AD, as i, 2, 3, etc. ;
then set off the right-angled line ABE (Fig. 63) ; make BF
equal to AB (Fig. 62), and draw the line CF parallel to AB ;
make AB and CF equal in length to AD (Fig. 62), and
draw the line AC ; make FD equal in length to the curved
line BC (Fig. 62) ; set off on the line FD the same number
of equal distances, as in the curved line BC (Fig. 62) ;
from the points draw lines parallel to CF, as i, 2, 3, etc. ;
make CF equal to BE (Fig. 62) ; also, each of the parallel
lines bearing the same figures, as i, 2, 3, etc. ; make
DE equal to CD; then a line traced through the points
wi?l form the pattern.
1
W) TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
A B
6\
7\
*v
6\
Fig. 62.
Fig 63.
CORNICE.
To describe a Pattern for a Miter Joint for an O G Cornice
y.t Right Angles ; also an Offset. — Describe the right-angled
/ine AFE (Fig. 64) ; let ABCDE be the given cornice ;
divide the curved line BCH into any number of equal
parts ; from the points draw lines parallel to AF, as i, 2, 3,
etc. Then set off the right angle ABCF (Fig. 65) ; make
CD equal to AB (Fig. 64) ; make DG equal in length to
the curved line BCH (Fig. 64) ; make GE equal to HD
(Fig. 64) ; make EF equal to DE ; set off on the line DG
CO&NICE.
O E
64.
O <S CO •«» tn<p f^ (O 0» Q
!
.
\
^
*
>i
X
B
r
/c
>XL.
>2 Z
^c
/
^
*«
J
t
52 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
the same number of equal distances as in the curved line
BCH (Fig. 64) ; from the points draw lines parallel to
BC, as 1,2, 3, K, H, etc. Make BC and ID equal to AF
(Fig. 64) ; also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same
figures, as 2, 3, 4, etc. ; make KG and HE equal to DE
(Fig. 64); then a line traced through the points B, i, 2,
3, 4, etc., and KHF will form the pattern for a Miter Joint.
When there is to be an offset or projection at right angles,
let AB (Fig. 66) be the depth of the offset or projection ;
make each of the parallel lines the same in length as AB,
LI, 2 2, 3 3, etc. ; then a line traced through the points
will form the pattern.
OCTAGON.
To describe a Pattern for an Octagon O G Lamp Top or
Fig 67.
OCTAGON.
53.
Cover. — Describe a circle that will cut the required Octa-
gon (Fig. 67) ; draw a line that will cut the centre of two
sections, as AI ; erect the perpendicular line HF; let
ABCDEFJ be the given top or cover ; divide the curved
lines BC and EF into any number of equal parts; from
the points draw lines parallel to FH, as i, 2, 3, etc., H, i-
2, 3, etc.
Set off the line AF (Fig. 68) ; draw the line GE at righl
angle to AF; make AB equal to AB in Fig. 67 ; make BC
Fig. 68.
equal in length to the curved lineBC (Fig. 67); divide BC
into the same number of equal distances, as in the curved
line BC (Fig. 67) ; from the points draw lines parallel to-
GE ; make CD equal to CD (Fig. 67), and DH equal to-
DE (Fig. 67) ; make HF equal to the curved line EF
(Fig. 67); divide HF into the same number of equal dis-
tances, as in the curved line EF; from the points draw
lines parallel to GE ; make AGAE and BIBJ equal to GA ;
also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same figures as.
i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 10, H, i, a, 3, 4, 5, 6; then
a line traced through the points will form the pattern.
A Top may be described in any number of sections by
this rule.
To describe a Pattern for a Stand (Aquarium Stand, for
instance), the Edge of which is a Moulding. — Let ABCDD'
54 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
C'B'A' (Fig. 69), be the plan of the stand, and EFGH
the front elevation. Through D' draw D'/' perpendicular
to AD (the line D'/' will be a continuation of the line
C D'); and on it draw /' c dn ', the curve of the moulding,
A'
\
\
Fig. 69.
which divide into any number of parts, equal or unequal.
The division here is into six equal parts, in the points a',
b' , S, df and <?', but it may sometimes be advantageous that
the division shall be into unequal parts. Through the
points of division draw lines i to i, 2 to 2, 3 to 3, 4 to 4,
and .q to q, parallel to AD, the extremities of these lines
OCTAGON.
55
terminating in A' A and D' D, the "miter" lines of the
plan. These "miter" lines A' A and E' D bisect respec-
tively the angles BAD, CAD ; in fact, the "miter" lines
of a moulding which is joined at any angle always bisect
that angle. From the points i, 2, 3, 4, and 5 on the line
D'D draw lines parallel to DC and terminating in C' C.
To draw the pattern for the A'D'AD portion of the mould-
V
V
f
Fig. 70.
ing, draw (Fig. 70) any line KL, and from any point D'
in it, set off distances D'a, ab, be, etc., equal respectively
to the distances d' a', a' b' , ///, etc.; round the curve
d" S f (Fig. 69), and through the points D', a, b, c, etc.,
draw lines perpendicular to KL. Make a i equal to a i
(Fig. 69), and b 2, c $, ^4, e 5, and/' D respectively
equal to the distances b 2, c 3, d 4, e$ and/ D (Fig. 69);
56 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
and through the points D' i, 2, 3, 4, 5 and D draw an inu
broken curved line. Now from D' set off D'A' equal to
D'A' (Fig. 69), and through A' draw A'M parallel to
KL. From the points in A'M, where the lines through a,
b, c, etc., cut A'M, set off distances to the left of the line
corresponding to the distances a i, b 2, c 3, etc., to the
right of the line KL, and through the points thus found
draw an unbroken curved line. Then A'D'AD will be
the pattern for the A'D'AD (Fig. 69) portion of the
stand.
To draw the pattern for the D'C'DC (Fig. 69) portion
of the stand : It will be at once seen from the plan that
this differs only from the A'D'AD portion in that the
distance D'C' is less than the distance A'D' ; and thus,
that if in Fig. 69 the lines A'M and LK are brought
closer together, so that A'D' is equal to D'C' (Fig. 69),
that the pattern so obtained will be the pattern for the
D'C'DC piece of moulding.
It will be noticed that the elevation FGEH is not used
in the working of the problem, although here drawn ; that,
indeed, it is unnecessary to draw an elevation.
PIPES.
To describe a T Pipe at Right Angles.— -Let ABCD (Fig.
71), be the length and diameter of the T; describe the
semicircle CED ; divide the semicircle into any number
of equal parts ; from the points draw lines parallel to AC,
as i, 2, 3, etc. ; then set off the line ABC (Fig. 72), equal
in length to the circumference of the pipe AB ; erect the
lines AD, BE and CF ; set off on each side of BE the
same number of equal distances, as in the semicircle CED ;
from the points draw lines parallel to BE, as i i, 2 2, 3 3,
etc.; make AD, BE and CF equal to AC (Fig. 71); also,
each of the parallel lines, bearing the same numbers as i i,
PIPES.
2 2, 3 3, etc.; then a line traced through the points will
form the pattern required.
Edges to be allowed for folding or riveting.
E
/\
A 10 9 0/7 65432 IB I 2
Fig. 72.
345678 9 10 C
To describe a Pattern for a T Pipe at any Angle. — Draw
the line AE (Fig. 73) ; erect the line AB, the angle
required ; also, the line ED parallel to AB ; make BD
equal to the diameter of the Pipe ; describe the semicircle
BCD ; draw the line FG parallel to BD ; divide the semi-
circle into any number of equal parts ; from the points
draw lines parallel to AB, as i, 2, 3, etc.
5S TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
2 3 4 5 678V
• 73-
Set off the line ABC (Fig. 74) equal in length to the
circumference of the Pipe ; erect the lines AE, BD and
1
J
/
X
S
.
•**.
*-^-
*^
'
X
\
/
.
-•
3'
4
[f
3
..
\
/
6
1
2
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" 4
3
i
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l
A9 876543 £.J 81 23456789C
Fig- 74-
CF at right angles to AC ; set off on each side of BD the
same number of equal distances as in the semicircle BCD
PIPES.
59
(Fig. 73), and from the points draw lines parallel to BD,
as i i, 2 2, 3 3, etc. Make BD equal to AB (Fig. 73), and
EA and CF equal to ED (Fig. 73) ; also, each of the
parallel lines, bearing the same figures as i i, 2 2, 3 3, etc.
Make GI and HJ equal to GD (Fig. 73) ; also, each of the
lines bearing the same figures as i i, i i, 2 2, 2 2, etc. ;
then a line traced through the points will form the required
pattern.
Edges to be allowed.
Al 234 5 678 9 I OB
F'g- 75-
To describe a Pattern] or a TPipe, the Co liar to be Smaller
than the Main Pipe. — Let the circle GH (Fig. 75) equal
the large pipe, AB, CD, the branch or collar ; describe the
«0 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
semicircle AEB ; divide the semicircle into any number of
equal parts ; from the points draw lines parallel to AC, as
i, 2, 3, etc.
Set off the line ABC (Fig. 76) equal in length to the
Fig. 76,
circumference of the collar AB ; erect the perpendicular
lines AD, BE and CF; set off on each side of BE the same
r. H
PIPES. 61
number of equal distances as in the semicircle ; from the
points draw lines parallel to BE, as i, i, 2, 2, etc. ; make
AD. BE and CF equal to AC and BD (Fig. 75); also,
each of the parallel lines bearing the same figures, as i, i,
2, 2, 3, 3, etc.; then a line traced through the points will
form the pattern.
Edges to be allowed.
To describe a Pattern for a T Pipe at any Angle, the Collar
to be Smaller than the Main Pipe. — Let CE (Fig. 77) be the
diameter of the collar, and AB the angle required ; describe
78.
62 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
the semicircle CDE ; make CF and EH of equal length ;
with a radius equal to one-half the diameter of the large
pipe, describe the arc FH ; divide the semicircle into any
number of equal parts ; from the points draw lines parallel
to AC, as i, 2, etc. There must be an odd number of
lines, as in the diagram, so that one of the lines runs
through the centre of the semicircle.
Set off the line ABC (Fig. 78) equal in length to the
circumference of the collar, CE ; erect the lines AD, BE
Fig- 79-
and CF ; set off on each side of BE the same number of
equal distances as in the semicircle, and from the points
draw lines parallel to BE, as i i, 2 2, etc. ; make BE equal
PIPES.
63
to AC in Fig. 77 ; make AD and CF equal to BE (Fig. 77);
also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same figures ;
make GI and HJ equal to CF (Fig. 77); also, each of the
parallel lines bearing the same figures, asii, 11,22, 22, etc.
A line traced through the last points will form the pat
tern.
Edges to be allowed.
o
Fig. 80.
To describe a Pattern for a T Pipe at any Angle, the Col-
lar to be set on one side of the Main Pipe. — Let the circle
FE (Fig. 79) equal a large pipe or boiler; make AB equal
to the diameter of the collar or branch pipe, BE the angle
64 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
required; describe the semicircle ACB ; divide the semicir-
cle into any number of equal parts ; from the points draw-
lines parallel to EB, as i, 2, 3, etc.
Set off the line ABC (Fig. 80) equal in length to the
circumference of the collar AB (Fig. 79) ; erect the per-
pendicular lines AD, BE and CF (Fig. 79) ; set off on each
side of BE the same number of equal distances as in the
semicircle ACB (Fig. 79); from the points draw lines
parallel to BE ; make BE equal to EB (Fig. 79) ; make AD
and CF equal to DA (Fig. 79) ; also, each of the parallel
lines bearing the same figures, as i i, 2 2, 3 3, etc. Then a
line traced through the points will form the pattern.
Edges to be allowed.
Rg.8,.
To describe the Pattern for a T-piece formed by two
equal or unequal circular Pipes (cylinders of equal or un-
PIPES. 65
tqual diameter], which meet at Right Angles, — First draw
(Fig. 81) a side elevation and part-plan of the two
circular pieces of pipe, which we will suppose un-
equal, as follows: Draw two indefinite lines Z^/and KJ,
intersecting each other at right angles in O. Make OZ
equal to the diameter of the larger pipe, and through Z
draw an indefinite line ML parallel to JK. Make OA' and
OH' each equal to half the diameter of the smaller pipe,
and through A' and H' draw indefinite lines A'A and H'H,
each perpendicular to KJ. In A'A take any point A,
on H'H set off H'H equal to A'A, and join AH cutting Od
in D ; then A'A HH' will represent, in elevation, a piece
of the smaller pipe. Next, in A'K take any point K, and
through K draw KM perpendicular to KJ, and meeting
ML in M ; also, in H'J take any point J, and through J
draw JL perpendicular to KJ and meeting ML in L ; then
MKJL will represent, in elevation, a piece of the larger
pipe, and MKA'AHH'JL a side elevation (except the curve
of junction) of the T-piece. With D as centre and radius
DA, that is, half the diameter of the smaller pipe, describe
a semicircle Ad'H ; divide the quadrant A</ of it into any
number of equal parts, here three, in the points b and c ;
and through b and c draw indefinite lines b~B and cC' par-
allel to A'A. Now on ZO describe a semicircle Z^O (this
will be a part-plan of the large pipe), and with 0 as centre
and radius DA describe a quadrant H'E (this may be re-
garded as a part-plan of the smaller pipe) which divide,
exactly as quadrant A^ was divided in the points F and G ;
through F, G, and H' draw lines Fi, G2, and H'3 parallel
to Z</ and cutting the semicircle Z^O in points i, 2 and
3. Through point i draw a line iB' parallel to KJ and
meeting £B' in B'; through 2 draw 2C' parallel to KJ and
meeting cC in C'; and through 3 draw 30' parallel to KJ
and meeting </D' in D'. From D' to A' through the points
C' and B' draw an unbroken curved line^ then A'C'D' is
5
TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
the elevation of one-half of the curve of junction of the
two pipes. In practice it is only necessary to draw the
A'ODA (Fig. 81) portion of the elevation of the smaller
pipe. The other half elevation H'ODH of it is drawn
here simply to make the full side elevation of the T-piece
clearer.
To get at the whole T-piece it is evident that two pat-
terns are required, one for the smaller piece of pipe, up to
M
Fig. 82.
its junction with the larger, and one for the larger with the
hole in it that the smaller pipe fits to.
To draw the pattern for the larger pipe with the longi-
tudinal seam to correspond with the line ML, proceed as
follows :
First set out, apart from the pipe itself, the shape for
the hole in it. Draw (Fig. 82) two indefinite lines ZO'
PIPES. 67
and A' A', intersecting at right angles in O ; from O, on
ZO, right and left of A'A', set off distances Oi', iY and
2'D equal respectively to Or, i 2, and 2 3 (Fig. 81), that is,
to the actual distances on the round curve of the pipe at
ZO that the lines iB', zC' and 30' are apart. Through
points i' and 2', right and left of A'A', draw B'B' and C'C'
perpendicular to ZO'. Make i'B' above and below ZO,
and right and left of A'A', equal to i'B' (Fig. 81) ; and
make 2'C', above and below ZO', and right and left of
A'A', equal to 2rC' (Fig. 81) ; and through all the'pointsas
above found, namely, D'C'B', A', B'C'D', C', B', etc., draw
an unbroken curved line; then D'A'D'A'D' will be the
shape of the hole required.
To complete the pattern for the MKJL (Fig. 81) piece
of the larger pipe, make OZ and OO' each equal to half its
circumference; and through Z and O' draw indefinite lines
ML perpendicular to ZO'. Make ZM of left-hand line
ML, and O'M of right-hand line ML, each equal to ZM
(Fig. 81); similarly make ZL and O'L each equal to ZL
(Fig. 81). Then MLLM will complete the pattern re-
quired.
It has been shown how to mark out by itself the hole
in the larger pipe, because in cases where the pipe is already
made up, it is convenient to be able to mark out the shape
of the hole apart from the pipe, on, say, a thin piece of
sheet-metal, which shape can then be cut out and used as a
template ; being applied to the pipe and bent to it, and
the shape of the hole marked on it from the template. Even
when the pipe is not made up, it is useful when the pipe is
large to be able to mark out the hole quite apart from the
pipe itself.
To draw the pattern for the smaller piece of pipe, the
longitudinal seam to correspond with the line A'A (Fig.
8i\ proceed as follows:
Draw (Fig. 83) an indefinite line AA. In it take any
68 TIN. SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
point D, and from D, right and left, set off distances DC,
CB, BA, equal respectively to dc, cb, and ba (Fig. 81) that
is, equal to one another ; and from the point D and each of
the points C, B, and A, draw lines perpendicular to AA.
Make DD' equal to DD' (Fig. 81), and the lines CC', BB',
AA', right and left of DD', equal respectively to CC', BB'
and AA' (Fig. 81). From either point A to A' on the
other side of DD', draw through B'C'D'C', and B', an un-
broken curved line ; then AA'A'A will be half the required
pattern. The other half can be similarly drawn.
B C
Fi.
To describe the Pattern for the T formed by a Jttnnel-shape
piece of Pipe and a circular piece, the former being square
to the latter ; the Diameter of the circular Pipe and the Diam-
eters of the ends of the funnel-shape Pipe and its Length
being given. — By "being square" is meant that the axes
of the pieces of pipe intersect and are at right angles. The
given diameter of the smaller end of the funnel-shape pipe
is the diameter in the direction of the length of the circular
pipe, and that coincides with its surface.
First draw a side elevation and a part-plan of the T
PIPES. 69
thus: Draw (Fig. 84) any two indefinite lines Z^and KJ,
intersecting at right angles at O. Make OZ equal to the
diameter of the "circular pipe, and through Z draw ML
Fig. 84.
parallel to KJ ; make OD equal to the length of the fun-
nel-shape pipe, and through D draw a line AH perpendic-
ular to Od. Now make DA and DH each equal to half
TO TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
the given diameter of its smaller end, which small end we
will suppose is not let into, but fits against the circular
pipe. Join AA' and HH', then A' A and HH' will be, in
elevation, the main portion of the funnel-shape pipe. Next
in A'K take any point K, and through K draw KM per-
pendicular to KJ and meeting ML in M ; also, in H'J
take any point J, and through J draw JL perpendicular to
KJ and meeting ML in M ; then MKJL will represent, in
elevation, a piece of the circular pipe ; and MKA'AHH'JL
a side elevation (except the curve of the junction) of
the T. Produce AA' and HH' to intersect ZO in V; with
D as centre and radius DA, describe a semicircle A<-/H,
and divide the quadrant Art' of it into any number of equal
parts, here three, in the points b and c ; through b and c
draw £B and cC, each perpendicular to AH and cutting it
in B and C, and join BV and CV; now on ZO describe a
semicircle Z,$Q (this will be a part-plan of the circular pipe),
cutting VH' in point 3. With O as centre and radius OH',
describe a quadrant H'E (this may be regarded as a part-
plan of the funnel-shape pipe), which divide into the same
number of equal parts that the quadrant AJ is divided into,
in the points/ and g. Through / and g draw /F and gH.,
each perpendicular to A'H' and cutting it in F and G ; join
FV, GV, cutting the semicircle Z3O in points i and 2 re-
spectively. Through point i draw a line iB" parallel to
KJ, meeting AV in B" and cutting ZO and BV in i' and
B' respectively ; through 2 draw 2C" parallel to KJ, meet-
ing AV in C", and cutting ZO and CV in 2' and C' re-
spectively ; and through 3 draw 3D" parallel to KJ, cutting
ZO in D' and meeting AV in D". From D' through C'
and B' to A' draw an unbroken curved line ; then A'C'D'
is the elevation of one-half the curve of junction of the
two pipes. In practice it is only necessary to draw the
OA'AD (Fig. 84) portion of the elevation of the smaller
pipe. The other half elevation OH'HD of it is drawn here
PIPES.
Fig. 85.
72 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
simply to make the full side elevation of the T clearer. It
is evident that the T requires two patterns, one for the cir-
cular pipe with the hole in it that the funnel-shape pipe fits
to, and one for the funnel-shape itself.
To draw the pattern for the circular pipe, the longitudi-
nal seam to correspond with the line ML, proceed in ex-
actly similar manner as explained for the pattern of the
corresponding pipe in the preceding problem (p. 66).
To draw the pattern for the funnel-shape pipe, the lon-
gitudinal seam to correspond with the line AA' (Fig. 84),
proceed as follows : With V (Fig. 85) as centre, and VA
(Fig. 85) as radius, describe an arc AA, and from any
point in it set off along the arc distances AB, BC, CD, DC,
BC and BA, each equal to A.b (one of the equal parts
into which quadrant dh. (Fig. 84) is divided). Join AV,
BV, CV, DV, CV, BVand AV; and make the extreme
lines AA' right and left of DV equal to AC" (Fig. 85) and
«\
7
\
Fig. 86.
DD" equal to AD" (Fig. 84). Through points A', B", C",
D", C", B", A" draw an unbroken curved line; then AA'
PIPES
73
A;A will be one-half the pattern required. By continuing
to the right, say, the arc AA, and setting off on it the
same above equal distances AB, BC, etc., and proceeding
in exactly similar manner, the other half-pattern can be
drawn to complete the pattern required.
To describe a Pattern for a Pipe to fit a Flat Surface at
any Angle, as the side of the Roof of a Building. — Let AB
(Fig. 86) equal the angle of the roof of a building ; let BE,
FB equal the pipe ; draw the line CE ; describe the semi-
o
Fig. 87.
circle CDE ; divide the semicircle into any number of equal
parts ; from the points draw lines parallel to EB, as 2, 3,
4. etc.
74 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Then set off the line ABC (Fig. 87) equal in length to
the circumference of the cylinder CE (Fig. 86) ; erect the
perpendicular lines AD, BE and CF ; set off on each side
of BE the same number of equal distances, as in the semi-
circle CDE (Fig. 86) ; from the points draw lines parallel
to BE ; make BE equal to BE (Fig. 86) ; make AD and
CF equal to FC (Fig. 86) ; also, each of the parallel lines
bearing the same number as 2 2, 3 3, 4 4, etc.; then a" line
traced through the points will form the pattern.
Edges to be allowed.
Fig. 88.
To describe a Pattern for a Pipe to fit two Flat Surfaces,
as the Roof of a Building. — Let ABC (Fig. 88) equal the
pitch of a roof; let DF, IH, be the pipe; draw the line
BG parallel to HF; draw the line DF at right angle to
HF ; describe the semicircle DEF ; divide one-half of the
semicircle into any number of equal parts ; from the points
draw lines parallel to FH, as 2, 3, 4, etc.
Set off the line ABC (Fig. 89) equal in length to the
circumference of the pipe DF ; divide the line ABC into
PIPES.
75
four equal parts, and erect the lines AD, OI, BF, OI, CE ;
set off on each side of OI, OI, the same number of equal
distances as in one-half of the semicircle ; from the points
draw lines parallel to BF ; make AD, BF and CE equal to
Fig. 89.
HF (Fig. 88) ; make OI, OI equal to BG (Fig. 88) ; also,
each of the parallel lines bearing the same figures as 2 2,
2 2> 3 3» 3 3> etc- > tnen a line traced through the points
will form the pattern.
Edges to be allowed.
To describe the Form of a "Tapering Piece" of Piping, to
join Two Pieces of Piping, which are both vertical, but not in
the same axis, and which are of Different Diameters. — Let
76 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
ABCD (Fig. 90) be a portion of the one pipe and EFGH
the other. Join BE and CF, and produce the lines
ELBOWS. 77
until they meet in O ; then if OC be produced until it is
equal to OB, viz., to I, and IB be joined, it will be evident
that OIB is the elevation of a cone placed obliquely on the
lower cylinder, and which is cut off at BC and EF.
Now draw any diameter to the cylinder, as JK, and on
it describe a semicircle, representing half of the section
of the cylinder. Divide this semicircle into any number
of equal parts, viz., IMNPQ; through these points draw
perpendiculars cutting the line BC in /, m, n, p, q, and
from /, m, n, p, q, draw lines to O.
Now from O, with radius On, describe an arc N'N",
and on this arc set off the lengths into which the semicircle
is divided. From O draw radii through all these points,
producing them beyond the arc N'N"; from O as a centre,
and with OB, O/, Om, Op, Og, and OC as radii, describe
arcs cutting the radii, in Fig. 91, in C', q', p', n', tt , / and
A98 7 6
Fig. 92.
B, etc., and the curve being drawn through these points
will give the bottom of the tapering piece.
78 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
The upper piece is to be drawn in the same manner, and
will be understood from the diagram.
ELBOWS.
To describe an Elbow at Right Angles. — Let ABCD (Fig.
92) be the given elbow ; draw the line AB at right angles
to BC ; draw the line FC ; describe the semicircle AGB ;
Fig. 93-
divide the semicircle into any number of equal parts ; from
the points draw lines parallel to BC, as i, 2, 3, etc.
Set off the line ABC (Fig. 93) equal in length to the
circumference of the elbow AB ; erect the perpendicular
lines AD, BE and CF; set off on each side of BE the
ELBOWS.
79
same number of equal distances, as in the semicircle AGB
(Fig. 92); from the points draw lines parallel to BE;
make BE equal to BC (Fig. 92) ; make AD and CF equal
to AF (Fig. 92) ; also, each of the parallel lines bearing
the same figures as i r, 2 2, 3 3, etc. ; then a line traced
through the points will form the pattern.
Edges to be allowed.
Patterns for Elbows may be described at any angle, by
any of the Rules for cutting Elbow patterns ; in laying out
Elbow patterns let AB equal diameter of the Elbow, and
BCD the angle.
To describe an Elbow Pattern at any Angle. — Let ABCD
(Fig. 94) be the given elbow; draw the line AB at right
angie to BF ; draw the line EF ; describe the semicircle
AGB ; divide the semicircle AGB into any number of
equai parts ; from the points draw lines parallel to BF, as
i, 2, 3, etc.
80 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Set off the line ABC (Fig. 95) equal in length to the
circumference of the elbow AB (Fig. 94) ; erect the perpen-
dicular lines AF, BE and CD ; set off on each side of BE
the same number of equal distances, as in the semicircle
F'g- 95-
AGB (Fig. 94) ; from the points draw lines parallel to BE,
as i, i, 2, 2, 3, 3, etc.; make BE equal to BF (Fig. 94);
make AF and CD equal to AE ; also, each of the parallel
lines bearing the same figures as i, i, 2, 2, 3, 3, etc.
Then a line traced through the points will form the pat-
tern.
Edges to be allowed.
To describe a Pattern for an Elbow in Three Sections, —
Let ABED (Fig. 96) be the given elbow ; draw the line
FC ; make FK equal to one-half the diameter of the elbow;
with F as a centre, describe the arc GL; divide the arc
GL into four equal parts ; draw the lines FH and FJ ; alsor
the line JH ; draw the line AB at right angle to BC ; de-
scribe the semicircle AMB ; divide the semicircle into any
number of equal parts ; from the points draw lines parallel
to BH, as i, 2, 3, etc.
Set off the line ABC (Fig. 97) equal in length to the
circumference of the elbow AB; erect the perpendicular
lines AD, BH and CE ; set off on each side of BH the
same number of equal distances as in the semicircle AMB
(Fig. 96) ; from the points draw lines parallel to BH ; make
BH equal to BH (Fig. 96) ; make AD and CE equal to AN
(Fig. 96) ; also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same
number as i, i, 2, 2, 3, 3, etc. ; then a line traced through
the points will form one of the sections. Make DF and
EG equal to HJ (Fig. 96) ; then reverse section No. i, and
place D at G and E at F, and trace a line from G to F ;
this will form sections Nos. 2 and 3.
Edges to be allowed.
82 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
7— V
/ v
1 V
CO / CM \
97-
To describe a Pattern for an Elbow in Four Sections. — -
Let ABED (Fig. 98) be the given elbow ; draw the line
FC ; make FM equal in length to one-half the diameter
of the elbow ; with F as a centre, describe the arc KL ;
divide the arc KL into three equal parts ; draw the lines
FH and FI ; also the line IH ; divide the section HK into
two equal parts, and draw the line FG ; draw the line AB
at right angles to BC ; describe the semicircle ANB ; di-
vide the semicircle into any number of equal parts ; from
the points draw lines parallel to BC, as i, 2, 3, etc.
Set off the line ABC (Fig. 99) equal in length to the
circumference of elbow AB ; erect the lines AF, BD and
O L
84 TIN, SHEET-IKON AND COPPER-PLAE WORKER.
CE ; set off on each side of the line BD the same number
of equal distances as in the semicircle ANB (Fig. 98) ;
from the points draw lines parallel to BD as i, i, 2, 2, etc.;
make BD equal to BG (Fig. 98) ; make AF and CE equal
to AJ (Fig. 98) ; also, each of the parallel lines, bearing
the same number as i, i, 2, 2, 3, 3, etc.; then aline traced
through the points will form the first section ; make FG
and EJ equal to HI (Fig. 98) ; reverse section No. i ;
place E at G and F at J ; trace a line from G to J ; make
GH and JI equal to PO (Fig. 98), or to DK (Fig. 99) ;
take section No. i, place F at H and E at I, and trace a
line from H to I; this forms sections Nos. 3 and 4.
Edges to be allowed.
To describe a Pattern for an Elbow in Five Sections. — Let
ABED (Fig. 100) be the given elbow ; draw the line FC ;
make FL equal in length to one-half the diameter of the
elbow ; witn F as a centre, describe the arc GM ; divide the
arc GM into four equal parts, and draw the lines FJ and
FH ; also the line IH; divide the section GH into twc equal
ELBOWS.
parts, and draw the line FK ; draw the line AB at right angle
to BC ; describe the semicircle ANB ; divide the semicircle
into any number of equal parts ; from the points draw
lines parallel to BC, as i, 2, 3, etc.
A87 654321 BIZ345 87
Set off the line ABC (Fig. 101) equal in length to the
circumference of the elbow AB; erect the perpendicular
lines AL, BD and CK ; set off »n each side of BD the
same number of equal distances as in the semicircle ANBt
(Fig. 100) ; from the points draw lines parallel to BD, as i, i,
2, 2, etc. ; make BD equal to BK ; make AF and CE equal
to AO; also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same
number as i, i, 2, 2, 3, 3, etc.; then a line traced through
the points will form Sec. i. Make FG and EH equal to,
HI; reverse Sec. i, place E at G and F at H,
and trace a line from G to H ; make GJ and HI
86 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
equal DM in Fig. 100; take Sec. i and place E at
I and F at J, and trace a line from J to I ; make JL and
IK equal to HI ; reverse Sec. i, and place E at L and F
at K, and trace a line from L to K. This completes Sec-
tions Nos. 4 and 5. This completes the patterns. When
ELBOWS. 87
elbows are to be of heavy iron and riveted, punch the
holes for the rivets on the lines FE, GH, JI and LK, allow-
ing for the lap each side on Sections Nos. 2, 3, and 4.
To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Elbow. — Let AB
and CD (Fig. 102) equal large end of elbow, DHB the
angle ; make HF equal CG, and EF equal AB ; make JK
Fig. (03.
88 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
equal the small end of the elbow ; draw the lines BK and
AJ, and continue the lines until they intersect at I ; de-
scribe the semicircles AB and JK ; divide the semicircles
into the same number of equal parts ; from the points draw
lines, as i, 2, 3, etc.
On any line, as AB (Fig. 103), with the radii IK and
IB (Fig. 102), describe the arcs HI and CD ; set off CAD
equal in length to the circumference of the large end AB ;
draw the lines CB and DB ; set off on each side of AB the
same number of equal distances as in the semicircle AB
(Fig. 102) ; from the points draw lines cutting the centre
at B ; make AE equal to BL (Fig. 102) ; make CF and DG
equal to AM (Fig. 102) ; also, each of the lines bearing
the same figure as i, i, 2, 2, 3, 3, etc. Then a line
traced through the points will form the pattern.
Edges to be allowed.
Fig. 104.
BOILER COVER.
BOILER COVER.
To describe an Oval Boiler Cover. — Erect the line DC
(Fig. 104) ; make FD equal to one-half the length of the
boiler bottom before the edge is turned ; describe the circle
HDI one-eighth of an inch larger in diameter than the
breadth of the bottom ; let FG be three-eighths of an inch ;
then apply the corner of the square on the line AB, allow-
ing the blade to cut the circle at I and the tongue at the
point G ; draw the lines GB, BI, also the lines GA, AH ;
allow one-eighth of an inch for an edge, as shown by the
dotted lines. The cover will be the same size as the
bottom or pit.
FLANGE.
To describe a Pattern for a Flange for a Pipe that goes
on the Roof of a Building, as Fig. 88. — Let ABC (Fig. 105)
±s
Fig. 105.
Fig. ,06.
be the pitch of the roof; make DE equal to the diameter
of the pipe; describe the circle FG (Fig. 106); make
FG the same in diameter as the pipe ; draw the line FG ;
set off on the line FG any number of equal parts ; from,
the points draw lines at right angle to FG, as i, 2, etc.
'90 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Set off the line HI (Fig. 107) equal in length to DBE
in Fig. 105 ; set off on the line HI the same number of
equal parts as in the line FG (Fig. 106) ; from the points
•draw lines at right angle to HI ; set off on each side of HI
the same distances as on each side of the line FG in Fig,
, x"~^
>v i
2/
\2'
3/
\3
4/
ft
S/
\ 5
6
6
6
5
\
8
\
/3
\
/Z
\
/.
\J
h
Fig-
^/
\
107.
106, as i, i, 2, 2, etc. ; a line traced through the points
will form the piece to be cut out ; when there is to be an
edge turned up, it must be allowed inside of the line traced.
The same rule is applied to describe a pattern for a flange
for Fig. 86; make HI (Fig. 107) equal BF (Fig. 86),
then proceed the same as described above.
OCTAGON OR SQUARE TOP OR COVER.
To describe an Octagon or Square Top or Cover. — De-
scribe a circle, three-quarters of an inch larger in diameter
than a circle that will cut each corner of the article the top
or cover is for ; set off the squares from B to C (Fig. 108) ;
take one-half of the largest square ; and with B and C as
centres, describe arcs G and H ; then with A as centre,
describe the arc cutting the square at I and the arc D ;
OCTAGON OR SQUARE TOP OR COVER.
Fig. .08.
where the arcs GD and HD intersect, draw the lines AE
and AF, also the lines BE and CF.
STEAMER COVER.
To describe a Steamer Cover. — Describe a circle one inch
larger in diameter than the hoop after the edge is laid off;
lay the hoop on the plate, allowing an edge each side, as
Fig. 109.
shown by the distance between the two circles and the dot
on the line AC (Fig. 109), the circle DE representing the
hoop ; take the distance from A to the dot on the line ACf
92 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
•and set off three times the distance on the outer circle, as
from A to B ; draw the lines AC and BC, cutting the centre
at C.
Edges to be allowed.
OVAL.
To describe an Ellipse or Oval, having the Two Diam-
eters given. — On the intersection of the two diameters as a
'centre, with a radius equal to one-half the difference of the
two diameters, describe the arc AB (Fig. no), and from
B as a centre, with half the chord ACB, describe the arc
F
Fig 1 1 o.
CD ; from E as a centre with the distance ED cut the
diameters at FF and DD ; draw the lines FO, FO, FO, FO j
then from F and F as centres, describe the arcs OO and
OO ; also, from D and D as centres, describe the smaller arcs
OO and OO-, which will complete the ellipse as required.
Fig. I
To draw an Ellipse with the Rule and Compasses, the
OVAL.
transverse and conjugate Diameters being given ; that is, the
Length and Width. — Let AB (Fig. in) be the transverse
or longest diameter ; CD the conjugate or shortest diam.
eter, and O the point of their intersection — that is, the
centre of the ellipse. Take the distance OC or OD;
and, taking A as one point, mark that distance AE
upon the line AO; divide OE into three equal parts, and
take from AF, a distance EF, equal to one of those parts ;
make OG equal to OF ; with the radius FG, and F and G
as centres, strike arcs which shall intersect each other in
the points I and H ; then draw the lines HFK, HGM, and
IFL, IGN ; with F as a centre, and the radius AF, describe
the arc LAK; and, from G as a centre, with the same
radius, describe the arc MEN ; with the radius HC, and H
as a centre, describe the arc KCM, and from the point I,
with the radius ID, describe the arc LMD. The figure
ACBD is an ellipse, formed of four arcs of circles.
To draw an Egg-shaped Oval, having the Length and
Width given. — Make AB (Fig. 112) equal to the length of
the oval, and from A set off AO equal to half its width.
Through O draw an indefinite line QQ' perpendicular to
AB, and with O as centre and OA as radius, describe the
semicircle CAD. Join DB; and from D draw DE per-
pendicular to QQ' and equal to OD. Also, from E draw
EG parallel to QQ' and intersecting DB in G, and from G
draw GF parallel to DE and intersecting QQ' in F. From
B set off BP equal to DF, and join PF. Bisect FP and
through the point of bisection draw a line cutting QQ' in
Q. Join QP and produce it indefinitely, and with Q as
centre and QD as radius describe an arc meeting QP pro-
duced in H. Make OQ' equal to OQ, and join QP and
produce it indefinitely. With Q' as centre, and Q'C (equal
to QD) as radius, describe an arc meeting Q'P produced
in H'. And with P as centre and PB as radius describe an
94 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Fig. f.t.
arc to meet the arcs DH and CH' in H and H', and to
complete the egg-shaped oval.
ELLIPSE.
Fig. 1.3.
To find the Centre and the two Axes of an Ellipse. — Let
ELLIPSE.
95
ABCD (Fig. 113) be an ellipse: it is required to find its
centre ; draw any two lines, as EF and GH, parallel and
equal to each other ; bisect these lines as in the points I
and K, and bisect IK as in L ; from L as a centre, draw a
circle cutting the ellipse in four points, i, 2, 3, 4; now L
is the centre of the ellipse ; but join the points i, 3, and 2,
4 ; and bisect these lines as in M and N ; draw the line
MN, and produce it to A and B, and it will be the trans-
verse axis ; draw CD through L, and perpendicular to AB,
and it will be the conjugate or shorter axis.
\
'P
pi?. M^.
71? find the Radius and Versed Sine for a given Frustum
of a Cone. — Multiply the slant height by one-half the diam-
eter of the large end, and divide the product by one-half
the difference of the two ends, and the quotient is the ra-
dius. The versed sine is found by multiplying the altitude
by one-half the diameter of the large end, and dividing
96 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
the product by one-half the difference of the two ends;
then subtract the quotient from the radius, and the remain-
der is the versed sine.
The diameter AB (Fig. 114) equals 12 inches; CD equals
8 inches ; the slant height DB equals 10 inches ; required
the radius : 10X6 = 60-5-2 = 30 inches, radius.
The diameter AB equals 12 inches ; CD equals 8 inches;
the altitude IO, 9.79 inches; required versed sine : 9.79 X
6 = 58.74-7-2 = 29.37; 30 — 29. 37=. 63, versed sine.
Fig. 115.
To draw a Figure having Straight Sides and Semicircular
Ends. — Draw a line AB (Fig. 115) equal to the given
length ; make AO and BO' each equal to half the given
width. Through O and O' draw indefinite lines perpen-
dicular to AB ; with O and O' as centres and OA as radius
describe arcs cutting the perpendiculars through O and O'
in DF and GE. Join DE, GF ; this will complete the
hgure required.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Fig, 116.
GEOMETRY is the science which investigates and demon-
strates the properties of lines on surfaces and solids ; hence,
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY is the method of applying the rules
of science to practical purposes.
From any given point, in a straight line, to
erect a perpendicular ; or, to make a line at right
angles with a given line. — On each side of the
point A (Fig. 116) from which the line is to be
made, take equal distances, as AB, AC ; and
from B and D as centres, with any distance
greater than BA or CA, describe arcs cutting
each other at D ; then will the line AD be the
perpendicular required.
When a perpendicular is to be made at or
near the end of a given line. — With any con-
venient radius, and with any distance from
the given line AB (Fig. 117), describe a por-
tion of a circle, as BAG, cutting the given
point in A ; draw, through the centre of the
circle N, the line BNC ; and a line from the
point A, cutting the intersection at C, is the perpendicular
required.
To bisect a given line (divide a line P
into two equal parti). — Let AB (Fig.
nS) be the given line. With A as a cen-
tic and any radius greater than half its / \
length, describe an indefinite arc; and A — I — I r
with B as centre and same radius, de-
scribe an arc intersecting the former arc
in points P and Q. Draw a line through
P and Q ; this will bisect AB.
Fig. 117.
\J
Fig. ii 8.
(97)
98 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
To divide a line into any num-
ber of equal parts . — Let AB (Fig.
119) be the given line. From •<
one of its extremities, say A,
draw a line A3 at any angle
to AB, and on it, from the an-
gular point, mark off as many parts — of any convenient
length, but all equal to each other — as AB is to be divided
into. Say that AB is to be divided into three equal parts,
and that the equal lengths marked off on A3 are A to i, i
to 2, and 2 to 3. Then join point 3 to the B extremity of
AB, and through the other points of division, here i and
2, draw lines parallel to 36, cutting AB in C and D. Then
AB is divided as required.
To do the same otherwise. — From the given
point A (Fig. 120), with any convenient ra-
dius, describe the arc DCB ; from D, cut the
arc in C, and from C, cut the arc in B; also,
from C and B as centres, describe arcs cut-
ting each other in T ; then will the line AT
be the perpendicular as required.
NOTE> — When the three sides of a triangle are in the
proportion of 3, 4, and 5 equal parts, respectively, two of
the sides form a right angle ; and observe, that in each of
these or the preceding problems, the perpendiculars may
be continued below the given lines, if necessarily required.
To bisect any given angle. — From the
point A (Fig. 121) as a centre, with any ra-
dius less than the extent of the angle, de-
scribe an arc as CD ; and from C and D as
centres, describe arcs cutting each other at
B ; then will the line AB bisect the angle as
required.
PRACTICAL GEOMETKY.
Fig. 122.
To trisect (divide into three equal
angles') a right angle. — With centre
B (Fig. 122) and any radius, describe
the arc 1,2; with the centres i and
2 and the same radius, describe the
arcs 3 and 4. Draw 63 and 64 and
the right angle will be trisected into
three equal angles.
To describe a triangle in a circle, —
From any point of the periphery (Fig.
123) describe with the radius of the
circle an arc passing through the centre
of the circle. By now joining the in-
tersecting points a and b by a line, one
side of the required triangle is obtained.
With this line as a radius, describe arcs
from a and b, intersecting in c ; then join a, b, c, which
will complete the required triangle.
To find the centre of a circle. — Draw
the chord a b (Fig. 124). From the
terminal points of this chord describe,
with any convenient radius, an arc in-
tersecting in c and d ; through the in-
tersection draw a straight line meeting
the circle in e. This line c e now con-
tains a diameter, viz., e f, and by di-
viding this diameter into two equal
parts, the centre (o) is found.
To find the length of any given arc
of a circle. — With the radius AC
(Fig. 125) equal to ^ the length of ' * •
the chord of the arc AB, and from Fi£- I25-
A as a centre, cut the arc in C ; also, from B as a centre,
with equal radius, cut the chord in B; draw the line CB;
100 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
and twice the length of the line is the length of the arc
nearly.
To find the centre of a circle or radius,
that shall cut any three given points, not in
a direct line. — From the middle point B
(Fig. 126) as a centre, with any radius, as
BC, BD, describe a portion of a circle, as
CSD; and from R and Tas centres, with
an equal radius, cut the portion of the cir-
cle in CS and DS; draw lines through
where the arcs cut each other ; and the intersection of the
lines at S is the centre of the circle as required.
Through any given point, to draw a
tangent to a circle. — Let the given
point be at A (Fig. 127); draw the
line AC, on which describe the semi-
circle ADC ; draw the line ADE, cut-
ting the circumference in D, which is
the tangent as required.
To draw from or to the cir-
cumference of a circle lines
tending towards the centre,
when the centre is inaccessible.
— Divide the whole or any Fig. 128.
given portion of the circum-
ference into the desired number of equal parts ; then, with
any radius less than the distance of two divisions, describe
arcs cutting each other, as Ai, Bi, Ca, D2, etc. (Fig. 128);
draw the lines Ci, B2, 03, etc., which lead to the centre
as required.
To draw the end lines. — As AR, FR ; from C describe
the arc R, and with the radius CI, from A or F as centres,
cut the former arcs atR, or R', and the lines AR, FR, will
tend to the centre as required.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
101
To describe an arc or segment of a circle of large radii. —
Of any suitable material, construct a triangle, as ABC
(Fig. 129); make AB, BC, each equal in length to the
chord of the arc DE, and in height twice that of the arc
Fig. .29.
BB. At each end of the chord DE fix a pin, and at B, in
the triangle, fix a tracer (as a pencil), move the triangle
along the pins as guides ; and the traces will describe the
arc required.
Or otherwise. — Draw the
chord ACB (Fig. 130); also,
draw the line HDI, parallel
Fig. ,30.
with the chord, and equal to
the height of the segment ;
bisect the chord in C, and erect the perpendicular CD;
join AD, DB; draw AH perpendicular to AD, and BI per-
pendicular to BD; erect also the perpendiculars A n and
B«/ divide AB and HI into any number of equal parts;
draw the lines i, i, 2, 2, 3, 3, etc.; likewise divide the
lines A «, B n, each into half the number of equal parts;
draw lines to D from each division in the lines An, B n,
and through where they intersect the former lines describe
a curve, which will be the arc or segment required.
To describe a parabola, the dimensions being given. — Let
AB (Fig. 131) equal the length, and CD the breadth of
Fig. 131.
102 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Fig.
the required parabola; divide CA, CB into any number o(
equal parts; also, divide the perpendiculars A a and B b
into the same number of equal parts; then from a and b
draw lines meeting each division on the line ACB, and a
curve line drawn through each intersection will form the
parabola required.
To describe an elliptic arch, the
width and rise of span being given. —
Bisect with a line at right angles
the chord or span AB (Fig. 132);
£rect the perpendicular A q, and
draw the line q D equal and paral-
lel to AC, bisect AC and A q in r
and n; make C / equal to CD, and
draw the \vs\zlrq; draw also the
line n s D; bisect .< D with a line at right angles, and meet-
ing the line CD in g; draw the line g q, make CP equal to
C k, and draw the line g P // then from g as a centre, with
the radius g D, describe the arc s D /'/ and from k and P
as centres, with the radius A k, describe the arcs A s and
B /, which completes the arch as required. Or,
Bisect the chord AB (Fig. 133),
and fix at right angles any straight
guide, as b c; prepare, of any suit-
able material, a rod or staff, equal
to half the chord's length, as d ef;
from the end of the staff, equal to
the height of the arch, fix a pin e,
and at the extremity a tracer// move the staff, keeping its
end to the guide and the fixed pin to the chord; and the
tracer will describe one-half the arc required.
To obtain by measurement the length of any direct line,
though intercepted by some material object. — Suppose the dis-
tance between A and B (Fig. 134) is required, but the
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
103
right line is intercepted by the object C. On the point d,
with any convenient radius, describe the arc c c; make the
arc twice the radius in length, through which draw the line
d c e, and on e describe another arc equal in length to once
the radius, as eff; draw the line efr equal to efd; on r
describe the arc j j, in length twice the radius ; continue
the line through rj, which will be a right line, and make
d e, or e r, equal to the distance between d r, by which the
distance between A and B is obtained as required
To inscribe any regular polygon in a
given circle. — Divide any diameter, as AB
(Fig. 135), into so many equal parts as the
polygon is required to have sides ; from A
and B as centres, with a radius equal to the
diameter, describe arcs cutting each other
in C; draw the line CD through the second
point of division on the diameter <?, and
the line DB is one side of the polygon required.
To describe any regular pol-
ygon, the length of one side
being given. — Let AB (Fig.
136) be the given side of, say,
a hexagon. With either end,
here B, as centre and the
length of the given side as
radius, describe an arc. Pro-
duce AB to cut the arc in X.
35'
36.
TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Divide the semicircle thus formed into as many equal parts
as the figure is to have sides (six), and join B to the second
division point of the semicircle, counting from X. This
line will be another side of the required polygon. Having
now three points, A, B, and the second division point from
X, draw a circle through them, and as a regular polygon
can always be described in a circle, mark off the length
BA round the circumference from A until at the last mark-
ing off, the free extremity of the second side (the side
found) of the polygon is reached ; then, beginning at A,
join each point in the circumference to the next following;
this will complete the polygon (hexagon).
To form a circle equal in area to
a given ellipse. — Draw the axis of
the ellipse ; bisect it and erect in
the centre c (Fig. 137) the perpen-
dicular c b ; a c is then one-half of
the large, and c b one-half of the
small, axis of the oval. By joining
£ b to a c the point d is found ; a d
is now the diameter of the circle, and by bisecting it (in
.the centre is found.
To construct a square upon a given
right line. — From A and B (Fig. 138)
as centres, with the radius AB, de-
scribe the arcs A c b, B c d, and from
f, with an equal radius, describe the
circle or portion of a circle c d, AB,
b c ; from b d cut the circle at e and e ;
draw the lines A e, B e, also the line
$t, which completes the square as required.
Fig. .38.
To form a square equal in area to a given triangle. — Let
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
105
ABC (Fig. 139) be the given tri-
angle ; let fall the perpendicular
B d, and make A e half the height
d B ; bisect e C, and describe the
semicircle e n C ; erect the perpen-
dicular A s, or side of the square,
Fig- »39.
then A s t x is the square of equal area as required.
Fig i4o.
To form a triangle equal in area to a circle :
Preliminary remarks. — A cord stretched over the circum-
ference of a disk 7 inches in diameter measures, from end
to end, 22 inches. Hence, the diameter is 7 inches, and
the circumference 22 inches. This proportion holds good
for all circles, no matter how large or how small. Hence,
the geometrical rule :
The diameter of a circle is to the periphery as 7 : 22 ; or,
still more accurately, as 100 : 314.
For the sake of simplicity the proportion 7 : 22 is here
used.
The solution of the problem is as follows : Draw a per-
pendicular diameter (Fig. 140) and divide it into 7 equal
parts. Then draw tangentially to the circle a horizontal,
and measure off on it 22 such parts, best n to the left and
ii to the right. Now, by connecting both points of the
horizontal with the centre of the circle a triangle is formed,
which is equal in area to the circle, because, by dividing
106 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
the periphery into 22 equal parts, and drawing from every
point of division a radius towards the centre, the entire
area of the circle is divided into 22 triangles having an
equal altitude (the radius) and an equal base (the arc of
the circle). The correctness of this conduction is shown
by the application of the rule that triangles of equal bases
and equal altitudes are equal to each other.
To form a square equal in area to
a given rectangle. — Let the line AB
(Fig. 141) equal the length and
breadth of the given rectangle ; bi-
sect the line in e, and describe the
semicircle ADB ; then from A with
the breadth, or from B with the length, of the rectangle,
cut the line AB at C, and erect the perpendicular CD,
meeting the curve at D, and CD will equal a side of the
square required.
To find the length for a rect-
angle whose area shall be equal
to that of a given square, the
breadth of the rectangle being
also given.— Let ABCD (Fig.
142) be the given square, and
DE the given breadth of
rectangle ; continue the line
BC to F, and draw the line DF; also, continue the line
DC to^-, and draw the line Kg parallel to DF; from the
intersection of the lines at^, draw the line gd parallel to
DE, and Ed parallel to Dg ; then ED dg is the rectangle
as required.
To describe a circle of greatest di-
ameter in a given triangle. — Bisect
the angles A and B (Fig. 143) and
draw the intersecting lines AD,
BD, cutting each other in D ; then
7*4
Fig. 142.
Fig- 143
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
107
from D as centre, with the distance or radius DC, describe
the circle C ef, as required.
To bisect any given triangle. — Suppose
ABC (Fig. 144) the given triangle; bi-
sect one of its sides, as AB in <?, from
which describe the semicircle A r B ; bi-
sect the same in r, and from B, with the
distance B r, cut the diameter AB in v ;
draw the line vy parallel to AC, which
will bisect the triangle as required.
Fig. 144,
To form a rectangle of greatest surface in
a given triangle. — Let ABC (Fig. 145) be
the given triangle ; bisect any two of its
sides, as AB, BC, in e and d ; draw the line
e d ; also at right angles with the line e d,
draw the lines ep, dp, and epp d is the
rectangle required.
To inscribe within a given
equilateral triangle three equal
semicircles having their diam-
eters adjacent and equal. —
Let ABC (Fig. 146) be the
equilateral triangle. Bisect
the angles of the triangle by
lines A. a, B b, and C c. Join
a b, and on this line describe
a semicircle touching the sides
of the triangle. To avoid
Hg. 146,
confusion of lines, this semicircle is omitted in the figure,
only the point (</) where it would cut b a being shown.
From d'draw a line parallel to c A, cutting b~R in e ; from
<?draw a line parallel to b a, cutting A a in/. Draw fg
parallel to CA ; join g e by a line parallel to BC. Then
108 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
be the adjacent diameters of three semi-
circles, the curves of which will touch the triangle ABC.
To inscribe in a given circle three
equal semicircles having their diam-
eters adjacent. — Find the centre of
the circle A (Fig. 147) ; draw the
diameter BC, and from B and C
set off the radius of the circle, thus
dividing it into six equal parts in
EG, FD ; draw EF and GD ; draw
the radius AH at right angles to
BC ; from F set off FI equal to FH,
thus trisecting the quadrant HB in FI ; from I draw a line
to G, cutting EF in J ; from A set off AK and AL equal to
AJ ; join JK, KL and LJ, which will give the adjacent
diameters of the three required semicircles, the centres of
which will be at M, N, O.
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS TO FRACTIONAL
PARTS OF LINEAL MEASUREMENT.
One Inch the Integer or Whole Number.
.96875 are equal to
r *nd A
.46875 are equal to \
and -jsij-
•9375
• and i-1^
•4375
and y'j
.90625
• and •g'j
.40625
and ^j
•875
•375
•84375
and -jsj
•34375
•and A
.8125 "
and j1^
•3125
and1!*
.78125
and -g1^
.28125 «
-75
.25
,71875
and -^y
.21875
and j3j
•6875
.65625
and ^g
and -j'j
.1875
.15625
and }{
-625
.125 i
-59375 "
and T3!
•09375 " i
y
,5625
and Ti8
.0625 «« ,
V
and j?y
.03125 « ,
V
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
109
One Foot or 12 Inches the Integer.
.9166 are equal to
.8333
-75
.5833
.4166
-3333
-25
II inches.
10 "
l ::
I :
5 "
4 "
3 «
.1666 are eqi
.0833
.07291
.0625
.05208
.04166
.03125
.02083
.01041 «
lal to
|
|
2 inches.
MENSURATION OF SURFACES.
MENSURATION is that branch of Mathematics which is
employed in ascertaining the extension, solidities and capac-
ities of bodies capable of being measured.
DEFINITIONS OF ARITHMETICAL SIGNS USED
IN THE FOLLOWING CALCULATIONS.
= Sign of Equality, as 4 + 6 = 10.
+ Sign of Addition, as 6 + 6 = 12, the Sum.
— Sign of Subtraction, as 6 — 2=4, the Remainder.
X Sign of Multiplication, as 8 X 3 = 24, the Product,
-i- Sign of Division, as 24 -s- 3 = 8 or ^* = 8.
V Sign of Square Root, signifies Evolution or Extraction of Square
Root.
1 Sign of to be Squared, thus 82 = 64.
3 Sign of to be Cubed, thus 33 = 27.
To Measure or Ascertain the quantity of Surface in any
Right-lined figure, whose Sides are Parallel to each other,
as Figs. 148, 149 and ijo.
Square. Rectangle. Rhomboid.
Fig. .48.
Fig. 150.
RULE. — Multiply the length by the breadth or perpen-
dicular height, and the product will be the area or super-
ficial contents.
Application of the Rule to Practical Purposes.
The sides of a square piece of iron are 9^ inches in
length, required the area.
110
MENSURATION OF SURFACES.
Ill
Decimal equivalent to the fraction | =.875, (See page
108,) and 9.875 X 9-875 = 97-5, etc., square inches, the
area.
The length of a roof is 60 ft. 4 in., and its width 25 ft.
3 in., required the area of the roof.
4 inches = .333 and 3 inches = .25, (See table of
equivalents,) hence, 60.333 X 25.25 = 1523.4 square feet,
the area.
TRIANGLES.
To find the Area of a Triangle when the base and perpendic-
ular are given.
RULE. — Multiply the base by the perpendicular height,
and half the product is the area.
The base of the triangle (Fig.
151) ADB is 3 feet 6 inches in
length, and the height, DC, i foot
9 inches, required the area.
6 inches = . 5 , and 9 inches = . 75 ;
3-5 X 1-75
hence,
Fig. 151.
3.0625 square feet, the area.
Any two sides of a Right-Angled Triangle being given, to
find the third.
When the base and perpendicular are
given, to find the hypothenuse.
Add the square of the base to the square
of the perpendicular, and the square root
of the sum will be the hypothenuse.
The base of the triangle (Fig. 152) AB Fig. 152.
is 4 feet, and the perpendicular EC 3 feet,
then 4 +32 = 25, -v/ 25 = 5 feet, the hypothenuse.
When the Hypothenuse and Base are given, to find the Per-
pendicular.
From the square of the hypothenuse subtract the square
112 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
of the base, and the square of the remainder will be the
perpendicular.
The hypothenuse of the triangle (Fig. 152), AC, is 5
feet, and the base, AB, 4 feet ; then 5* — 42 = 9, and v/9
= 3, the perpendicular.
WJien the Hypothenuse and the Perpendicular are given, to
find the base.
From the square of the hypothenuse subtract the square
of the perpendicular, and the square root of the remainder
will be the base.
OF POLYGONS.
To find the Area of a Regular Polygon.
RULE. — Multiply the length of a side by
half the distance from the side to the cen-
tre, and that product by the number of
sides ; the last product will be the area of
the figure.
EXAMPLE.— The side AB (Fig. 153) of A
a regular hexagon is 12 inches, and the dis- Fig. 153.
tance therefrom to the centre of the figure,
d c, is 10 inches ; required the area of the hexagon.
10
— X 12 X 6 = 360 sq. in. = 2\ sq. feet. Ans.
2
To find the Area of a Regular Polygon, when the Side only
is given.
RULE. — Multiply the square of the side by the multi-
plier opposite to the name of the polygon in the ninth
column of the following table, and the product will be th^
area.
MENSURATION OF SURFACES.
113
TABLE of Angles relative to the construction of Regular Polygons with
the aid of the Sector, and of Co-efficients to facilitate their construc-
tion without it ; also, of Co-efficients to aid in finding the area of the
figure, the side only being given.
1
1
E
|,
41
t
B
Names.
1
3
1
1,
1.M
*J be
_c*"~
li
3
1
6
•u
li
53
B
ii.
||
ill
1
J^_
<
<
*
j
M
M
Triangle,
3
120°
60°
0.28868
1.782
•5773
2.
0.438012
Square,
4
9°
90
0.5
1.414
.7071
I.4H
i.
Pentagon,
5
72
1 08
0.6882
1-175
.8506
1.238
1.720477
Hexagon,
6
60
1 20
0.866
i.
I.I56
2.598076
Heptagon,
7
5»f
128$
1.0382
.8672
.152
I. II
3-633912
Octagon,
Nonagon,
8
9
45
40
135
140
1.2071
1-3737
•7654
.684
.3065
.4619
1. 08
1. 06
4.828427
6.181824
Decagon,
10
36
144
1.5388
.618
.618
1.05
7.694208
Undecagon,
ii
32A
H7T3T
1.7028
•5634
•7747
1.04
9-36564
Dodecagon,
12
30
1.866
•5176
1.9318
1-037
11.196152
NOTE. — " Angle at centre" means the angle of radii, passing from
the centre to the circumference, or corners of the figure. " Angle at
circumference " means the angle which any two adjoining sides make
with each other.
THE CIRCLE AND ITS SECTIONS.
Observations and Definitions.
1. The Circle contains a greater area than any other
plane figure bounded by the same perimeter or outline.
2. The areas of Circles are to each other as the squares
of their diameters ; any Circle twice the diameter of
another contains four times the area of the other.
3. The Radius of a circle is a straight
line drawn from the centre to the circum-
ference, as BD (Fig. 154).
4. The Diameter of a circle is a straight
line drawn through the centre and termi-
nated both ways at the circumference, as
ABC.
8
114 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
5. A Chord is a straight line joining any two points of
the circumference, as EF (Fig. 154).
6. The Versed Sine is a straight line joining the chord
and the circumference, as GH.
7. An Arc is any part of the circumference, as AEH.
8. A Semicircle is half the circumference cut off by a
diameter, as AHC.
9. A Segment is any portion of a circle cut off by a
chord, as EHF.
10. A Sector is part of a circle cut off by two radii, as
CBD.
General Rules in Relation to the Circle.
1. Multiply the diameter by 3.1416; the product is the
circumference.
2. Multiply the circumference by .31831 ; the product is
the diameter.
3. Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, and the
product is the area.
4. Multiply the square root of the area by 1.12837; the
product is the diameter.
5. Multiply the diameter by .8862 ; the product is the
side of a square of equal area.
6. Multiply the side of a square by 1.128 ; the product
is the diamater of a circle of equal area.
Application of the Rules to Practical Purposes.
1. The diameter of a circle being 5 feet 6 inches; re-
quired its circumference.
5.5 X 3-1416 = 17.27880 feet, the circumference.
2. A straight line, or the circumference of a circle, be-
ing 17.27880 feet; required the circle's diameter corre-
sponding thereto.
17.27880 X -31831 = 5.5000148280 feet, diameter.
3. The diameter of a circle is pf inches ; what is its area
in square inches?
9-3753= 87.89, etc., X .7854 = 69.029, etc., in., the area.
MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 115
4. What must the diameter of a circle be to contain an
area equal to 69.029296875 square inches?
v/ 69.02929, etc.,= 8.3091 X 1-12837 = 9.375,
etc., or 9! inches, the diameter.
5. The diameter of a circle is 15^ inches; what must
each side of a square be, to be equal in area to the given
circle ?
15.5 X -8862 = 13-73, etc., inches, length of side.
6. Each side of a square is 13. 736 inches in length ; what
must the diameter of a circle be to contain an area equal
to the given square?
13-736 X 1-128 = 15-49, etc., or 15^ inches, the
diameter.
Any Chord and Versed Sine of a circle being given, to find
the diameter.
RULE. — Divide the sum of the squares of the chord and
versed sine by the versed sine, and the quotient is the diam-
eter of corresponding circle.
7. The chord of a circle AC (Fig. 155)
equals 8 feet, and the versed sine BD
equals i\ feet; required, the circle's di-
ameter.
82+ 1.52 = 66.25 -*• i-5 =44-i6
feet, the diameter.
Fig. 155-
8. In the curve of a railway I stretched
a line 80 feet in length, and the distance from the line to
the curve I found to be 9 inches ; required, the circle's di-
ameter.
8o2-f -752= 640.5625 -s- 2 = 320.28, etc., feet,
the diameter.
To find the Length of any arc of a circle.
RULE. — From eight times the chord of half the arc sub-
tract the chord of the whole arc, and one-third of the re-
mainder will be the length nearly.
116 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Required, the length of the
arc ABC (Fig. 156), the chord
AB of half the arc being
feet, and the chord AC of the
whole arc 16 feet 8 inches.
8.5 X 8 = 68.0 and 68.0 — 16.666
I3-778
feet, the length of the arc.
Figi ,57
To find the area of the Sector of a circle.
RULE. — Multiply the length of the arc
by half th<? length of the radius.
The length of the arc ABC (Fig. 157)
equals .9^ inches, and the radii DA, DC,
equal each 7 inches ; required, the area.
9-5 X 3-5 = 33-25 inches, the area.
To find the area of a Segment of a circle.
RULE. — Find the area of a sector whose arc is equal to
that of the given segment, and if it be less than a semicir-
cle, subtract the area of the triangle formed by the chord
of the segment and radii of its extremities ; but if more
than a semicircle, add the area of the triangle to the area
of the sector, and the remainder or sum is the area of the
segment.
Thus, suppose the area of the segment ABCE (Fig. 157)
is required, and that the length of the arc ABC equals 19^
feet, DA and DC each equal 14 feet, and the chord AC
equals 16 feet 8 inches ; also, the perpendicular ED equals
1\ feet-
16.666 X 7-5
*9-5 X 7 = r36-5 ft-, the area of the sector,
= 62. 49 ft. the area of the triangle, 136.5-
ft. , the area of the segment.
62.49= 74-ox
MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 117
To find the area of the space contained between two Concen-
tric Circles or the area of a Circular Ring.
RULE i. — Multiply the sum of the inside and outside
diameters by their difference and by .7854; the product is
the area.
RULE 2. — The difference of the areas
of the two circles will be the area of
the ring or of the space required.
Suppose the external circle AD (Fig.
158) equals 4 feet, and the internal
circle BC 2\ feet ; required, the area ~
of the space contained between them
or area of a ring.
4 4- 2.5 = 6.5 and 4 — 2.5 = 1.5 ; hence, 6.5 X i-5 X
.7854 = 7.65 feet, the area; or,
The area of 4 feet is 12.566; the area of 2.5 is 4.9081.
(See table of areas of circles.)
12.566 — 4.9081 = 7.6579, the area.
To find the area of an Ellipse or Oval.
RULE. — Multiply the diameters together and their pro-
duct by .7854.
An oval is 20 inches by 15 inches; what are its super-
ficial contents ? 20 X 15 X -7854= 235.62 inches, the area.
To find the circumference of an Ellipse or Oval.
RULE. — Multiply half the sum of the two diameters by
3.1416; the product will be the circumference.
EXAMPLE. — An oval is 20 inches by 15 inches; what is
its circumference ?
20 + 15
, = 17.5 X 3-1416 = 54.978 in., the circumference.
118 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
OF CYLINDERS.
To find the Convex Surface of a Cylinder.
RULE. — Multiply the circumference by the height or
length ; the product will be the surface.
EXAMPLE. — The circumference of a cylinder is 6 feet 4
inches, and its length 15 feet ; required, the convex sur-
face.
6-333 X 15 = 94-995 square feet, the surface.
OF CONES AND PYRAMIDS.
To find the Convex Surface of a Right Cone or Pyramid.
RULE. — Multiply the perimeter or circumference of the
base by the slant height, and half the product is the slant
surface ; if the surface of the entire figure is required, add
the area of the base to the convex surface.
EXAMPLE. — The base of a cone (Fig. 160) is 5 feet
diameter, and the slant height is 7 feet ; what is the convex
surface ?
5 X 3-1416 = 15.70 circumference of the base and
I5-70X7
= 54.95 square feet, the convex surface.
2
To find . the Convex Surface of a Frustum of a Cone or
Pyramid.
RULE. — Multiply the sum of the circumference of the
two ends by the slant height, and half the product will be
the slant surface.
The diameter of the top of a frustum of a cone (Fig.
161) is 3 feet, the base 5 feet, the slant height 7 feet 3
inches ; required, the slant surface.
25.12 X 7-25
9.42 + 15.7 = = 9 1. 06 sq.ft., slant surface.
MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 119
OF SPHERES.
To find the Convex Surface of a Sphere or Globe (Fig.
RULE. — Multiply the diameter of the
sphere by its circumference, and the pro-
duct is its surface ; or,
Multiply the square of the diameter by
3.1416 ; the product is its surface.
What is the convex surface of a globe,
6£ feet in diameter?
6.5 X 3.1416 X 6.5 = 132.73 square feet; or, 6.5*:
42.25 X 3-1416= i32.73sq. ft., the convex surface.
MENSURATION OF SOLIDS AND CAPACITIES OF
BODIES.
To find the Solidity or capacity of any figure in the Cubical
Form.
RULE. — Multiply the length of any one side by its
breadth and by the depth or distance to its opposite side ;
the product is the solidity or capacity in equal terms of
measurement.
EXAMPLE. — The side of a cube is 20 inches ; what is the
solidity? 20 X 20 X. 20 = 8000 cubic inches; or,
4.6296 cubic feet nearly.
A rectangular tank is in length 6 feet, in breadth 4§ feet,
and in depth 3 feet ; required its capacity in cubic feet ;
also, its capacity in United States standard gallons.
6 X 4-5 X 3 = 81 cubic feet, 81 X 1728 = 139968 ~-
231 = 605-92 gallons.
OF CYLINDERS.
To find the Solidity of Cylinders.
RULE. — Multiply the area of the base by the height, and
the product is the solidity.
120 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
EXAMPLE. — The base of a cylinder is 18 inches, and the
height is 40 inches; what is the solidity?
i82 X -7854 X 40 =10178.7840 cubic inches.
To find the Contents in Gallons of Cylindrical Vessels.
RULE. — Take the dimensions in inches and decimal parts
of an inch. Square the diameter, multiply it by the height,
then multiply the product by .0034 for wine gallons, or by
.002785 for beer gallons.
EXAMPLE. — How many United States gallons will a cyl-
inder contain, whose diameter is 18 inches and length 30
inches?
i82 X 3° = 9720 X .0034 = 33.04, etc., gallons.
OF CONES AND PYRAMIDS.
To find the Solidity of a Cone or a Pyramid.
RULE. — Multiply the area of the base by
the perpendicular height, and \ the product
will be the solidity.
EXAMPLE. — The base of a cone (Fig. 160)
is 2| feet, and the height is 3! feet ; what
is the solidity?
i.252X.7354X 3-75
=4.97 cubic feet, the solidity.
3
To find the Solidity of the Frustum of a Cone.
RULE. — To the product of the diameters of the ends
add | the square of the difference of the diameters ; mul-
tiply the sum by. 7854, and the product will be the mean
area between the ends, which multiplied by the perpendic-
ular height of the frustum, gives the solidity.
EXAMPLE. — The diameter of the large end of a frustum
of a cone (Fig. 161) is 10 feet, that of the smaller end is
MENSURATION OF SOLIDS.
Fig. 161.
6 feet, and the perpendicular height 12 feet;
what is the solidity?
10 — 6 = 4* = 16 -r- 3 = 5.333 square of
difference of ends; and 10 X 6 + 5-333
= 65-333 X -7854 X 12 = 615.75 cubic
feet, the solidity.
2 o find the Contents in U. S. Standard Gallons of the Frus-
tum of a Cone,
RULE. — To the product of the diameters in inches, and
decimal parts of an inch of the ends, add \ the square of
the difference of the diameters. Multiply the sum by the
perpendicular height in inches and decimal parts of ah
inch, and multiply that product by .0034 for wine gallons,
and by .002785 for beer gallons.
EXAMPLE. — The diameter of the large end of a frustum
of a cone (Fig. 161) is 8 feet, that of the smaller end is 4
feet, and the perpendicular height 10 feet; what are the
contents in United States standard gallons?
96 — 48 = 483 = 2304 -*- 3 — 768 ; 96 X 48 + 768 =
5376 X 120 X -0034 = 2 1 93. 04 gallons.
To find the Solidity of the Frustum of a Pyramid.
RULE. — Add to the areas of the two ends
of the frustum the square root of their prod-
uct, and this sum multiplied by \ of the
perpendicular height will give the solidity.
EXAMPLE. — What is the solidity of a hex.
agonal pyramid (Fig. 162), a side of the
large end, AB, being 12 feet, and one of the
smaller ends 6 feet, and the perpendicular height 8 feet?
374.122 + 93.53 = v/ 34991.63 = 590.811 374-122 -f
1058.463 X 8
93-53 -=- 590.811 = = 2822.568
Fig. 162.
cubic feet, the solidity.
122 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
•
To find the Solidity of a Sphere.
RULE. — Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236.
and the product is the solidity.
EXAMPLE. — What is the solidity of a sphere (Fig. 159),
the diameter being 20 inches ?
jo8 = 8000 X -5236 = 4188.8 cubic inches, the solidity.
TABLES OF WEIGHTS. ETC.
Weight of Square Rolled Iron, from 1-4 Inch to 12
Inches, and i Foot in Length.
Size in
Inches.
Weight
in Pounds.
Size in
Inches.
Weight
in Pounds.
Size in
Inches.
Weight
in Pounds.
O.2
3:
357
6*
142.8
0-5
3J
38-5
6|
154-0
0.8
3'
41.4
7
165.6
1-3
1.9
3-
3'
44.4
47-5
\
177.7
I90.I
2.6
3i
•
50.8
71
203.0
3-4
4
54-1
8
216.3
4-3
4i
57-5
8i
230.1
5-3
4i
61.1
8!
244.2
6.4
4f
64.7
8|
258.8
7.6
4i
68.4
9
273-8
8.9
41
72.3
9i
289.2
10.4
41
76.3
9*
305.I
11.9
4*
80.3
9|
321.3
'3-5
5
84-5
10
337-9
**
*5-3
5-
88.8
355-1
2
17.1
5-
93-2
372-7
2
19.1
5-
977
390.6
2
21. 1
5
102.2
ii
409.0
2
23-3
5
IO7.O
"}
427.8
2
25.6
5|
in. 8
"i
447.0
2
27.9
5l
116.7
ni
466.7
3
30.4
6
121.7
12
486.7
3i
33-o
6i
132.0
Weight of Flat Rolled Iron, from 1-8 X 1-2 Inch to
i X 6 Inches.
Thick.
Width.
Weight
in LEs.
Thick.
Width.
Weight
in Los.
Thick.
Width.
Re
y*
i
O.2II
0.264
0.316
0.369
I
\
0.422
0-475
0.8
I.I
XXXX
l%
l$4
2
1-9
123
124 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Table Continued.
Thick.
Width.
Weight
in Lbs.
Thick.
Width.
Weight
in Lbs.
Thick.
Width.
»
X
2^
2.1
H
6
7.6
x
4X
9.0
X
2X
2-3
i
$
4>^
9-5
X
3
2-5
l/2
1 1/
2.1
H
4^
IO.O
X
3X
2-7
l/2
l/4
2-5
$
5
10.6
X
3K
3-0
X
l/4
sX
ii. i
X
3X
3-2
y2
2
3-4
z
11.6
X
4
3-4
X
2^
3-8
$
sX
I2.I
X
4X
3-6
X
4-2
$
6
12.7
X
3-8
y2
2X
4.6
X
I
2-5
X
4X
4.0
%
3
5.1
X
IX
3-2
X
5
4-2
/2
3X
5-5
X
3-8
$
sX
4-4
4-6
3X
5-9
6-3
'X
2
4-4
I
P
4-9
1
4
4X
6.8
7-2
1
2^
6
i
1.3
%
7-6
X
2X
7.0
y*>
'X
1.6
%
4X
8.0
3
7.6
N
1-9
yz
5
8-4
X
3X
8.2
N
JX
2.2
l/2
5X
8.9
X
3/2
8.9
2
2-5
%•
93
X
9-5
N
2^
2.9
3-2
%
h
9-7
IO.I
X
4X
10.1
io.8
y%
2X
3-5
H
i
2.1
X
4^
11.4
y*
3
3-8
H
iX
2.6
X
12.0
N
3X
4.1
$
3-2
*
54
12.7
N
3^
4-4
$
fX
3-7
sX
'3-3
3X
4.8
$
2
4-2
X
5/2
13-9
^
4
M
2X
4-8
5X
14.6
N
4X
5-4
5-3
X
6
15.2
N
f^
23/
5-8
iy*
5-i
N
4X
6.0
^
3
6-3
2
6.8
5
6-3
$
3X
6-9
3
IO.I
y*
5X
6-7
$
7-4
4
I3-S
H
7.0
&
3X
7-9
5
16.9
y*
5X
7-3
H
4
8.4
6
20.3
Weight of Round Rolled Iron, from 1-4 Inch to 12
Inches in Diameter, and i ^^/ in Length.
Diamet'r in Inch's. Weight in Pounds. Diamet'r in Inch's. Weight in Pounds.
X
*
$/
70
1.0
n
0.4
I.e
/2
0.7
H
2.0
TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC.
Table Continued.
125
Diamet'r in Inch's.
Weight in Pounds.
Diamet'r in Inch's.
Weight in Pounds.
I
2-7
5^
69.7
I V^
3-4
53^
73-2
ji/
4-2
sH
76.7
13/
5.0
5/2
80.3
1 A
6.0
srt
84.0
j{|
7.0
SX
87.8
j V'
8.1
S7/s
91.6
jT£
9-3
6
95.6
2
10.6
6X
103.7
2l^
I2.O
6%
1 12. 2
2X
13-5
6%
I2I.O
25^
150
7
I3O.O
2%
16.7
7X
139-5
2$
18.8
7K
149-3
23/
20.1
7^
159-5
2%
21.9
8
169.9
3
23-9
8^
180.7
25-9
8^
191.8
3X
280
8$
203.3
3^6
30.2
9
215.0
"? V'
32-5
Q \/
227.2
3^
34-9
9%
239.6
•23/
37-3
Q3^
252.4
37/&
39-9
10
266.3
4
42.5
IQl^
278.9
4 y^
45-2
IO/^
292.7
4X
48.0
10^
306.8
4^i
50.8
II
321.2
4^
53-8
!IX
336-o
4f6
56.8
11^
351-!
4^
60.0
11K
366.5
4j^
631
12
382.2
5
66.8
Weight of a Square foot of Wrought Iron, Copper and
Lead, from 1-16 to 2 Inches Thick.
Wrought Iron,
Hard Rolled.
Copper,
Hard Rolled.
Lead.
JL
2.517
2.890
3.691
5i
5-035
5-741
7.382
5
7-552
10.070
8.672
11.562
11.074
I4-765
126 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATF WORKER.
Table Continued,
Wrought Iron,
Hard Rolled.
Copper,
Hard Rolled.
Lead.
A
12.589
14-453
18.456
y*
15.106
17-344
22.148
f
17.623
20.141
20.234
23.125
29-530
22.659
26.106
33-222
i|
25.176
28.906
36.913
i£
27.694
3r-797
40.604
%
30.211
34.688
44.296
\\
32.729
37.578
47.987
y*
35-247
40.469
51.678
11
43359
55-370
40.282
46.250
59.06I
i/^
45-3I7
52.03
66.444
jx
50.352
57-8I3
73-826
55-387
63-594
8I.2IO
fx
60.422
69-375
88.592
xH
65-458
75-I56
95-975
i^
70.493
80.938
103-358
* z6
86.719
110.740
2
8o.'563
92.500 118.128
Weight of Copper Bolts, from 1-4 to 4 Inches in Diameter,
and i Foot in Length.
Diameter.
Pounds.
Diameter.
Pounds.
%
.1892
IT"* 7-3898
s
.2956
'#
7-993'
Xs
.4256
•j?
9-»702
T'*
•5794
i^
10.6420
)i
.7567
2
I2.IO82
S
-9578
1.1824
1-4307
2'^
2X
2^
13.6677
I5325I
17.0750
jr
1.7027
2K
18.9161
8
1.9982
2.3176
2^
2^
20.8562
22.8913
if
2.6605
2^
25.0188
3.0270
3
27-2435
«A
3-4I70
3^
29-5594
M*
38312
3X
33-9722
Vs
4.2688
3>i
34-48r5
$
4-7298
37.0808
'J15K
5.2140
3^i
39-7774
rig
5-7228
• 3^
42.5680
FA
- **/*
6-2547 3^
6.8109 (I 4
45-4550
48-433°
TABLES
OF THE
CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES,
To THE NEAREST FRACTION OF PRACTICAL MEASUREMENT; ALSO,
THE AREAS OF CIRCLES, IN INCHES, AND DECIMAL PARTS; LIKE-
WISE IN FEET AND DECIMAL PARTS, AS MAY BE REQUIRED.
Rules rendering the following Tables more generally useful.
1. Any of the areas in inches, multiplied by .04328, or
the areas in feet multiplied by 6.232, the product is the
number of imperial gallons at i foot in depth.
2. Any of the areas in feet, multiplied by .03704, the
product equals the number of cubic yards at i ft. in depth.
"1 sis 3
6-S-Si jj.S-5
u -
.196
•392
•589
•785
.981
1.178
1-374
1-570
1.767
1.963
2.159
2.356
2-552
2.748
2-945
'#
3^
3^
%
•S Ji
s III
.0030
.0122
.0276
.0490
.0767
.1104
•1503
.1963
.2485
.3068
.3712
.4417
•5185
•6013
.6903
.7854
.9940
1.227
1-485
1.767
2.074
2.405
2.761
•0554
.1107
.1661
.2115
.2669
•3223
•3771
•4331
•4995
•5438
.6093
.6646
.7200
•7754
.8308
I in.
'A
'A
LJ 14
cs c .i: e
Q - U HH
2/8
3j
3/8
Ft. I
II
3.141
3-546
3-976
4-430
4.908
5.412
5-939
6.492
7.068
7.669
8.296
8.946
9.621
10.320
11.044
"-793
Ar'asq. i.
'oS 1!
V *rt rt
ill
3m.
3X
Ar'as.ft.
12.566 .0879
13.364 .0935
14.186 .0993
15.033 .1052
i =5.904 .in-
3.8oo
17.721
.1176
.1240
18.665 i .1306
"127"
128 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Table Continued.
iam
in
Inch
•
£•*-•
o w
S/2
srt
19-635
20.629
21.648
22.690
23.758
24.850
25.967
27.108
•1374
.1444
•1515
.1588
.1663
• 1739
.1817
.1897
7^ 78.540
7^ 80.515
8^jj 82.516
8#i 84.540
S7/s] 86.590
9^f 88.664
9X 90-762
io#l 92.855
6K
6#
7
7X
8
8^
?x
28.274
29.464
30.679
131.919
33.183
34-471
35.784
37.122
.1979
.2062
.2147
.2234
•2322
.2412
.2504
.2598
II*
3?s
2 4^£
24^
2 53
26^
2 7
38.484
39-871
41.282
42.718
44.178
45.663
47.173
48.707
50.265
51.848
53-456
55.088
56.745
58.426
60.132
61.862
.2693
.2791
.2889
.2990
.3092
.3196
•3299
•3409
1214
95-033
97.205
99.402
101.623
103.869
106.139
108.434
110.753
113.097
115.466
117.859
120.276
3#j 122.718
3# 125.185
4 | 127.676
4#| 130.192
•35'8
•3629
•3741
.3856
•3972
.4089
.4209
•4330
13
!i#
63.617
65-396
67.200
69.029
70.882
72.759
74.662
76.588
•4453
•4577
.4704
.4832
.4961
•5093
.5226
•536i
14*
I4S
4MJ 132-732
5X J35-297
5^ 137.886
140.500
145.802
1.0019
1.0206
;# 148.489 ] i. 0294
7X 151-201 11.0584
Si I53-938
^ 156.669
M 159485
s| 162.295
i 165.130
j! 167.989
: 170.873
fl 173-782
11-0775
j i. 0968
ji-"93
1.1360
[1.1569
1.1749
1.1961
1.2164
CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES.
120
Table Continued.
Bj
1.5 1
.2 =
C '
• <# .
S - S
§!•§
bjs1-1
•2 si
ui
111
<C/2
1 S
E.S-g
,."** •
|||
|CJ_C~
.S g gi
8 II
•gdSVq
c <u .
|#
If*
ISX
IS*
15*
IS*
«s#
is*
3 ii#
3 ii*
3 ii*
4 oX
4 o*
4 I
4 I*
4 I*
176.715
179.672
182.654
185.661
188.692
191.748
194.828
197-933
1.2370
1.2577
1.2785
1.2996
1.3208
1.3422
I-3637
L3855
20
20^
20X
20^
20^
20#
20^
20*
5 2*
5 3X
5 3*
5 4
5 4*
5 4X
5 5*
5 5*
314.160
318.099
322.063
326.051
330.064
334-101
338-163
342-250
2.1990
2.2265
2-2543
2.2822
2.3103
2.3386
2.3670
2.3956
16
If*
I6X
16*
16*
16*
I6#
16*
i$
!!*
4 3X
44X
4 4*
4 5
201.062
204.216
207.394
210.597
213.825
217.077
220.353
223.654
1.4074
I-4295
I-45I7
I.474I
1-4967
I-5I95
1.5424
I-S65S
21
21*
2I#
21*
21*
21*
21*
21*
5 5*
5 6*
5 6^f
5 7*
5 7*
5 7*
5 8X
5 834/
346-361
350.497
354-657
358.841
363-051
367.284
371-543
375-826
2.4244
2-4533
2.4824
2.5117
2.5412
2.5708
2.6007
2.6306
I?
'7*
'7X
17/8
17*
17*
'7X
17*
45/8
4 53/
4 6*
4 6?4
4 6*
4 7/8
4 7X
4 8^
226.980
230-33°
233-705
237.104
240.528
243-977
247.45°
250.947
1.5888 ;
1.6123
1-6359
1-6597 i
1.6836 *
1.7078 ;
1-7321 i
1.7566
22
22*
22X
22*
22*
22*
22^
22*
5 9*
5 9*
5 9*
5 ioX
5 10*
5 "
5 ii*
5 "*
380.133
384-465
388.822
393-203
397.608
402.038
406.493
410.972
2.6608
2.6691
2.7016
2.7224
2.7632
2.7980
2.8054
2.8658
18
18*
8X
8*
8^
8*
SX
8*
4 8*
4 8^
4 9X
4 9^
4 10^
4 io#
4 10*
4 "X
254.469
258.016
261.587
265.182
268-803
272.447
276.117
279-811
1.7812 i
i. 806 1
1.8311
1.8562
1.8816
1.9071
1.9328 i
1.9586 |
23
23*
23X
23*
23*
23*
23^
23*
6 oX
6 o*
6 i
6 i*
6 iX
6 2X
6 2*
6 3
4I5-476
420.004
424.557
429.I35
433-737
438.363
443.014
447.690
2.8903
2.9100
2.9518
2-9937
3.0129
3.0261
3.0722
3.1081
19
19^
'9X
19*
19*
19*
*9X
'9*
4 ii*
5 o
5 °1A
5 o*
f :g
f ^
283.529
287.272
291.039
294.831
298.648
302.489
306.355
310.245
1.9847
1.9941
2.0371
2-0637
2.0904
2.1172
2.1443
2.1716
Ft. In.
2 O
2 OX
2 0*
2 0^
2 1
2 IX
2 I*
2 IX
6 3*
6 4*
6 4*
6 5X
6 6*
6 7X
6 8*
6 8*
452.390
461.864
47L436
481.106
490.875
500.741
510.706
520.769
3.1418
3-2075
3-273I
3-34io
3.4081
3-4775
3.5468
3.6101
130 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Table Continued.
£
2 2
22X
2 2^
223^
2 3
23X
23X
23^
2 4
24^
2 5
25X
25X
25^
2 6
26X
2 6X
2 63/
2 7
27X
2 8
2 8X
28X
2 83^
29
2 9#
2 9X
2 93
2 IO
2 10^
2 10^
2 103^
2 II
2 IlX
* "X
2 II
s
3.S*
3 fi
6 9
6 io
6 ii
7 o
7 0
7 i
7 2
7 3
7 4
7 5
7 6
7 7
7 7
7 8
7 9
7 io
7 ii
8 13^
8 2%
8 9
8 10
8 103^
9 °
9 i
9
9
9 3K
9 4X
23
•sag
III
530.930
541.189
551-547
562.0021
572-556
583.208
593.958
604.807
615-753
626.798
637.941
649.182
660.521
671.958
683.494
695.128
706.860
718.690
730.618
742.644
754-769
766.992
779-313
791.732
804.249
816.865
829.57
842.3
855.
3.6870
3-7583
3.8302
3.9042
3-9761
4.0500
4.1241
4.2000
4.2760
4-3521
4.4302
4-5083
4-5861
4-6665
4-7467
4.8274
5.2278
5-3264
5.4112
5.4982
3 2
3 2
3 2
3 23
3 3
3 3
3 3
s J5
rt S
S o-
9 5 1017.87
9 SH 1032.06
9 6#| 1046.35
9 7X 1060.73
9 8X 1075.21
9 9 1089.79
9 9j£ 1 104.46
9 io#: 1119.24
2*4
10 4
10 4
1134.12
1149.09
1164.16
1179.32
1194.59
1209.95
1225.42
1240.98
7X
5-5850
56729
5.7601
5-8491
5-9398
6.0291
881.415' 6.1201
894.619 6.2129
6.3051
6.3981
6.4911
6.5863
6.6815
6.7772
6.8738
6.9701
9
9V
# 1256.64
«*l 1272.39
1288.25
1304.20
1320.25
1336.40
10 103^; 1352.65
I369.00
I385-44
1401.98
1418.62
I435-36
1452.20
1469.14
1486.17
1503-30
034;
I#
2X
3
II 5^8
C u .
- § t»
JJ*
7.0688
7.I67I
7.2664
7.3662
7.4661
7.|67I
7.669I
7-7791
7.8681
7.9791
8.0846
8.I89I
8.2951
8.4026
85091
8.6I7I
8.7269
8.8361
8.9462
9.0561
9.1686
9-2II2
9-3936
9.5061
9.6212
9.8518
9.9671
0.084
0.2O2
0.320
0-439
ii 6^| 153053 10559
ii 7 | 1537.86 10.679
oou 53 I<J 5$y
1537.86 J 10.679
1555.28 10.800
1572.81 10.922
1590.43 11.044
1608.15 11.167
1625.97 11.291
1643.89 11.415
CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES.
Table Continued.
131
3 10
3 io
3 ">
3 io
3 "
3 "
3 "
12 4^8
12 5X
12 6
IX
4 2
4 2X
4 2)4
4 2^
4 3
4
4
4
3/2
4 4
4
4 4
4 4
4 5
6
3.S*
c « .
Ill
1661.90, H-534
i68o.o2j 11.666
1698.23! 11.793
| 1716.54! 11.920
1734.94 12.048
1753-45
1772.05
1790.76
12 6X 1809.56 12.566 I 4 10
12.176
12.305
12-435
9)4
12 iy2 1828.46 12.697
12 8^' 1847.45 12.829
12 9«^ 1866.55 12.962
12 gj/s 1885.74 13095
12 10X I905-03 I3.229
12 II^j 1924.42', 13.364
13 oX 19439'i 13-499
13 I
13 1^
13 2^
13 3^
13 4X
13
4X'3
13
13
,-,«3
5X,i3
I4
'96350! 13-635
1983.181 13.772
2002.96 13.909
2022.84 14-047
2042.821 14.186
2062.90 14.325
2083.07 14.465
2I03-35 14.606
14.748
14.890
I5-033
15.176
15-320
15-465
15.611
J5-757
7^12123.72
8^52144.19
2164.75
2185.42
2206.18
2227.05
2248.01
2269.06
6 14
6X
i^g 2290.22
2^i 2311.48
3X|2332.83
6X;H 4 12354.28
2375.83
2397.48
2419.22
7>gi 2441.07
-
7 14 4^
15-904
16.051
16.200
16-349
16.498
16.649
16.800
16.951
! ^x
5 2^
5 214:
5 3
5 3X
!
5
5
l
5
5
v
4X
x
H 7
14 8
H 9
14 io
14 n
I4 1I
•s§js
Sll
2463.01
2485.05
2507.19
2529.42
2551.76
2574.19
'5 o# 2596.72
15 1^12619.35
.£ <" .
15 8
'5 91
15 10
15 lo
15 11
16 o
16 i
16 i
16 9
16 9
16 io
16 ii
17 0
2642.08
2664.91
2687.83
2710.85
2733-97
2780.51
2803.92
2827.44
2851.05
2874.76
2898.56
2922.47
2946.47
2970.57
2994.77
3019.07
3043-47
3067.96
3092.56
3117-25
3142.04
3166.92
3191.91
3216.99
3242.17
3267.46
3292.83
3318.31
3343-88
3369-56
3395-33
17.104
17-257
17.411
17-565
17.720
17.876
18.033
18.189
18.347
18.506
18.665
18.825
18.985
19.147
19.309
19.471
I9-635
19.798
19.963
20.128
20.294
20.461
20.629
20.797
20.965
21.135
21.305
21.476
21.647
21.819
21.992
22.166
22-333
22.515
22.621
22.866
23-043
23.221
23-330
23.578
132 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Table Continued.
a c
5 £
jjl
s l/s
.£ ^
•S «J
III
U c "-1
§ l|
C 1)
XXX XXX
\OsOvOvO t^t^.t>»t^
ir>iOi/^ir>\rvtovr>Lr>
17 3H
17 4^
17 4^
17 5#
17 6X
17 rA
17 8
17 8%
3421.20
3447.16
3473-23
3499-39
3525.26
3552.01
3578.47
3605-03
23-758
24.119
24-307
24-483
24.666
24.850
25-034
6 4
6 4X
6 4X
6 4^
Hg
19 ioX
19 nx
20 OX
20 \y%
20 1^
2O 2^
20 3X
20 4X
4536.47
4566.36
4596.35
4626.44
4656.63
4686.92
4717.30
4747-79
3I-503
31.710
3I-9I9
32.114
32-337
32.548
32-759
32.970
XXX XXX
OOOOOOOO O^ O\ ON <^
\f) if) if) if) \f) \f) if) \f)
17 9#
17 io#
17 ni4
17 "#
18 o%
18 iX
18 2X
18 3l/s
3631.68
3658.44
3685.29
3712.24
3739-28
3766.43
3793-67
3821.02
25.220
25-405
25-592
25.779
25.964
26.155
26.344
26.534
6 6
6 6X
6 6X
6 6X
6 7
6 7X
20 5
20 5%
20 6^
20 7^
20 8^
20 8j4
20 9^
20 ioX
4778.37
4809.05
4839-83
4870.70
4901.68
4932-75
4963.92
4995-19
33-I83
33-396
33-6I9
33-824
34.039
34-255
34-471
34.688
5 10
5 i°X
5 i°X
5 ioX
5 ii
5T | I /
74-
5 uX
5 u^
18 3^
18 4^
18 5X
18 6X
18 7
18 7X
18 8&
18 93/s
3848.46
3875-99
3903-63
393I-36
3959-20
3987-13
4015.16
4043.28
26.725
26.916
27.108
27.301
27.494
27.688
27.883
28.078
6 8
6 8X
6 8X
6 8X
6 9
6 9X
5 Q^
20 IiX
21 Ol/%
21 07/s
21 1^
21 2^
21 31A
21 4
21 4X
5026 26
5058.02
5089.58
5121.24
5184.86
5216.82
5248.87
34-906
35-125
35-344
35-564
35-784
36.006
36.227
36-450
ONONONONONONONON
MHHMOOOO
XXX XXX
18 ioX
18 10^
18 iiX
19 o%
19 iX
19 2}i
19 27/&
19 3^
4071.51
4099.83
4128.25
4156.77
4185.39
4214.11
4242.92
4271.83
28.274
28.471
28.663
28.866
29.065
29.264
29.466
29.665
6 10
6 ii
6 nX
6 iiX
6 TI^
21 5X
21 6^g
21 Tl/&
21 7^
21 4i
21 9X
21 IOX
21 II
5281.02
5313.27
5345-62
5378.07
5410.62
5476.00
5508.84
36.674
36.897
37.122
37-347
37-573
37.700
38.027
38.256
6 2
6 2l/
6 2X
6 3
6 3X
6 3X
6 3^
19 4X
'9 5X
19 6
19 6X
19 7^
19 8^
19 9X
19 9^
4300.85
4329-95
4359.16
4388.47
4417.87
4447-37
4476.97
4506.67
29.867
30.069
30.271
30-475
30.679
30.884
31.090
31-296
CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES.
Table Continued.
133
U Tl
t> fi 8
*£ u rt-c
a
'S 1^
|.slj
e j
!'SP
||l|
6 fe
I1
^ r^i *"^
a4^"
Sfe
7 o
21 11%
38.4846
IO O
31 , 5
78.5400
i
22 3
39.4060
I
31 8^5
79.8540
2
22 6^
40.3388
2
31 "X
81.1795
3
22 9X
41.2825
3
32 2^
82.5190
4
23 03/6
42-2367
4
32 Sl/2
83.8627
23 2l/&
43.2022
5
32 8>i
85.2211
6
23 63^"
44.1787
6
32 n^
86.5903
7
23 ii
45.1656
7
33 2^
87.9697
8
24 iyi
46.1638
8
33 6^
89.3668
9
24 4>8
47-173°
9
33 9X
90.7627
10
24 7X
48.1926
IO
34 o3/8
92-1749
ii
24 io3/£
49.2236
ii
34 3^
93-5986
8 o
25 'X
50.2656
II 0
34 6^
95-0334
i
25 4>6
51.6178
I I 54 9%
96.4783
2
25 7^
52.3816
2 35 °7/&
97-9347
3
4
25 ii
26 2%
54-5412
3
4
35 4^
35 7X
99.4021
100.8797
1
26 5X
26 8^i
55-6377
56.7451
I
35 10^
36 i)4
102.3689
103.8601
7
26 n#
57.8628
7
36 4/4
105-3794
8
27 23^
58.9920
8
36 7X
106.9013
9
27 5,34
60.1321
9
108.4342
10
27 9t
61.2826
IO
37 23^
109.9772
ii
62.4445
ii
37 5X
111.5319
9 °
28 3X
63.6174
12 0
37 83^
1130976
i
28 63^
64.8006
I
37 lllA
114.6732
2
28 9X
65-995I
2
38 2^
116.2607
3
29 o^
67.2007
3
38 5X
117.8590
4
29 3X
68.4166
4
119.4674
5
29 7
69.6440
39 o
121.0876
6
29 10^5
70.8823
6
39 3X
122.7187
7
3° JX
72.1309
7
39 63/^
124-3598
8
3° 4^
73-3910
8
39 9X
126.0127
9
3° 7^
74.6620
9
40 o'/s
127.6765
10
30 u#
75-9433
10
40 3X
129.3504
ii
31 134- 77-2362
ii
40 6^ 131.0360
134 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Table Continued.
\M
Ji.S'H «5
E « 5 £
•S ^j
1 In
jfjtfrf
fgSj
n .
•- *•
J-»1
1 g 1J j=
$£
IJ|J
g ^ t 2
i= W r11 ^
sl
Q fe~
o fc
<
Q ^M
u fe
<
13 o
40 10
132.7326
16 o
50 3^
201.0624
I
4i i#
134-4391
i
50 6X
203.1615
2
41 4^
I36-I574
2
50 9^
205.2726
3
4i 7X
137.8867
3
5i o^
207.3946
4
41 io#
139.6260
4
5i 3^
209.5264
5
42 i#
141.3771
5
5i 6^
211.6703
6
42 4^
I43-I39I
6
51 10
213.8251
7
42 8
144.9111
7
52 i#
215.9896
8
42 115$
146.6949
8
52 4X
218.1662
9
43 2X
148.4896
9
52 7^
220.3537
10
43 5K
150.2943
10
52 ioX
222.5510
»n
43 8^
152.1109
ii
53 i#
224.7603
14 o
43 "#
I53-9484
17 o
53 4^
226.9806
I
44 2^
I55-7758
i
53 8
229.2105
2
44 6
157.6250
2
53 "^
231.4625
3
44 9^
159.4852
3
54 2^
233.7055
4
45 oX
i6i.3553
4
54 5^
235.9682
5
45 3X
163-2373
5
54 8^
238.2430
6
45 6#
165-1303
6
54 ii^
240.5287
7
45 9^
167.0331
7
55 2^
242.8241
8
46 o^
168.9479
8
55 6
245.1316
9
46 4
170.8735
9
55 9X
247-4500
10
46 7>£
172.8091
10
56 oX
249.7781
ii
46 iiX
I74-7565
ii
56 3X
252.1184
15 o
47 iK
176.7150
18 o
56 6^
254.4696
i
47 4^
178.6832
i
56 9^
256.8303
2
47 7^
180.6634
2
57 o^
259-2033
3
47 »#
182.6545
3
57 4
261.5872
4
48 2^
184-6555
4 57 7^
263.9807
5
48 sy&
186.6684
57 io;/
266.3864
6
48 8X
188.6923-
6 58 IMI
268.8031
7
48 n^
190.7260
7
58 4/2
271.2293
8
49 2^
192.7716
8
58 7#
273.6678
9
49 5^
194.8282
9
58 io#
276.1161
10
49 8^
196.8946
10
59 2
278.5761
ii
50 o
198.9730
ii
59 5>i
281.0472
SIZES OF TINWARE.
135
Sizes of Tinware in Form of Frustum of a Cone.
PANS.
•s
o
'O
* .
$ d,
£ 1
•S d.
« 2
oJ
IH
11
1
V
8,0
rt c~*
li
|
c/3
Q
Q
K
Cfl
Q
G
20 qts.
16 "
191^ In.
18 "
13 In.
"X "
8 In.
6X "
2 qts.
3 pts-
9 In.
8X "
6 In.
3^1.
14 "
IS* "
I pt.
4 "
2X "
10 "
II "
4/1 "
Pie.
9 «
7/4 "
IX "
6 " JI2^ "
9 "
4 "
DISH KETTLES AND PAILS.
"o
•s
•5
•s
s
s s
S
v S
Oj
li
II
I
u
0
!,§•
II
|
Cfl
«
Q
en
5'
Q
14 qts.
13 In.
9 In.
9 In.
6 qts.
9^ In-
S^In.
6^ In.
IO "
uX "
7 "
8 "
2 "
6X "
4
4 "
COFFEE POTS.
•g
"o
*0
•g
}-i
II
Jc
5 .
fe S
•S3
u
<u
IH
il
^S)
'S
4J
IH
1«
M
'5
CO
Q
Q
ffi
U2
Q
Q
I gal.
4 In.
7 In.
s^:.
3 i^s.
3^,,.
6 In.
SKI,
Size.
Diam.
of Top.
Diam.
of Bot.
Height.
Size.
Diam.
of Top.
Diam.
of Bot.
Height.
Xgal-
6^In.
4 In.
4 In.
ipt.
4X In-
3^ In-
2^ In.
136 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Tablei Continued.
MEASURES.
*£
Q'
II
& e
WASH BOWLS.
Size.
Diameter of
Top.
Diameter of
Bottom.
Height.
c In
Cullender
c3/ "
r ft
Small wash bowl
5)4 "
Milk strainer . . .
Q'/ "
lY "
DRUGGISTS AND LIQUOR DEALERS MEASURES.
Fig. .63.
5 gal. 8 InJ
3 "17
2 " I 6
:gai
" I1 qf'
i Pt.
^ In.
II
S
n. 6 In.
" 4^ "
CAPACITY OF CYLINDERS IN U. 8. GALLONS.
Capacity of Cylinders in United States Gallons.
Dia'r. "1
Inc's. /
4
5
6
7
8
9
Depth.
I inch.
.0544
.0850
.1224
.1666
.2176
•2754
2
.1088
.1700
.2448
•3332
•4352
.5508
3
.1632
•2550
.3672
.4998
.6528
.8262
4
.2176
.3400
.4896
.6664
.8704
1.1016
5
.2720
4250
.6120
•8330
i. 0880
1-377°
6
.3264
.5100
•7344
.9996
1.3056
1.6524
7
.3808
•5950
.8568
1.1662
1-5232
1.9278
g
•4352
.6800
•9792
1.3328
1.7408
2.2032
9
.4896
.7650
1.1016
1.4994
1.9584
2.4786
10
•5440
.8500
1.2240
1.6660
2.1760
2.7540
ii
.5984
•9350
1-3464
1.8326
3.3936
3.0294
12
.6528
i .0200
1.4688
1.9992
2. 6lI2
3-3048
13
.7072
1.1050
1.5912
2.1658
2.8288
5.5802
14
.7616
1.1900
1.7136
2-3324
3.0464
3-8556
15
.8160
1.2750
1.8360
2.4990
3.2640
4.1310
16
.8704
1.3600
1.9584
2.6656
3.4816
4.4064
17
.9248
1.4450
2.0808
2.8322
3.6992
4.6818
18
.9792
1.5300
2.2032
2.9988
3.9l68
4.9572
19
1.0336
1.6150
2-3256
3-1654
4-1344
5-2326
20
i. 0880
1.7000
2.4480
3-3320
4-3520
5.5080
21
1.1424
1.7850
2.5704
3.4986
4.5696
5-7834
22
1.1968
1.8700
2.6928
3-6652
4.7872
6.0588
23
1.2512
i-955o
2.8152
3-8318
5.0048
6-3342
24
1-3056
2.0400
2.9376
3.9984
5.2224
6.6096
25
1.3600
2.1250
3.0600
4.1650
5.4400
6.8850
26
1.4144
2.2100
3.1824
4-3316
5-6576
7.1604
27
1.4688
2.2950
3-3048
4.4982
5-8752
7-4358
28
•5232
2.3800
3-4272
4.6648
6.0928
7.7112
29
•5776
2.4650
3.5496
4-8314
6.3104
7.9866
3°
.6320
2.5500
3.6720
4.9980
6.5280
8.2620
3i
32
.6864
.7408
2.6350
2.7200
3-7944
3.9168
5.1646
5-3312
6.7456
6.9632
8-5374
8.8128
33
•7952
2.8O50
4.0392
5.4978
7.1808
9.0882
34
.8496
2.8900
4.1616
5-6644
7.3984
9-3636
35
1.9040
2.9750
4.2840
5-8310
7.6l6o
9.6390
36. ...
1.9584
3.0600
4.4064
5-9976
7.8336
9.9144
40. ...
2.1760
3.4000
4.8960
6.6640
8.7040
11.0160
44- ...
2-3936
3-7400
5-3856
7-3304
9-5744
12.1176
48. ...
2. 6lI2
4.0800
5-8752
7.9968
10.4448
13.2192
54- ...
2.9376
4.5900
6.6096
8.9964
".7504
14.87^6
60 .....
3.2640
5-1000
7-3440
9.9960
13.0560
16.5240
72
3.9168
6.1200
8.8128
11.9952
15,6672
19.8288
138 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Table Continued.
Dia'r. 1
Inc's. /
Depth.
10
11
12
13
14
15
I inch.
.3400
.4114
.4896
•5746
.6664
.7650
2
.6800
.8228
.9792
1.1492
1-3328
1-5300
3
I.020O
1.2342
1.4688
1.7238
1.9992
2.2950
4
1.3600
1.6456
1.9584
2.2984
2.6656
3.0600
5
1.7000
2.0570
2.4480
2.8730
3-3320
3-8250
6
2.040O
2.4684
2.9376
3-4476
3-9984
4.5900
7
2.3800
2.8798
3.4272
4.0222
4.6648
5-3550
8
2.7200
3.2912
3.9168
4.5968
5-3312
6. 1 200
9
3.0600
37026
4.4064
S-*7»4
5-9976
6.8850
10
3.4000
4.II40
4.8960
5.7460
6.6640
7.6500
II
12
3.7400
4.0800
4.5254
4.9368
5-3856
5.8752
6.3206
6.8952
7-3304
7-9968
8.4150
9.1800
13
4.4200
50482
6.3648
7.4698
8.6632
9945°
14
4.7600
57596
6.8544
8.0444
9.3296
10.7100
15
5-1000
6.I7IO
7-3440
8.6190
9.9960
11.4750
16
5.4400
6.5824
7.8336
9.1936
10.6624
12.2400
17
57800
6.9938
8.3232
9.7682
11.3288
13.0050
18
6.1200
7-4052
8.8128
10.3428
11.9952
13.7700
19
6.4600
7.8166
9.3024
10.9174
12.6616
'4-5350
20
6.8000
8.2280
9.7920
11.4920
13.3280
15.3000
21
7.1400
8.6394
10.2816
12.0666
13-9944
-6.0650
22
7.4800
9.0508
10-7712
12.6412
14.6608
10.8300
23
7.8200
9.4622
11.2608
13-2158
15.3272
I7.5950
24
8.1600
9-8736
11.7504
13.7904
15-9936
18.3600
25
8.5000
10.2850
12.2400
14.3650
16.6600
19.1250*
26
8.8400
10.6964
12.7296
14.9396
17.3264
19 8900
27
9.1800
11.1078
13.2192
I5-5I42
17.9928
20.6550
28
9.5200
11.5192
13.7088
16.0888
18.6592
21.4200
29
9.8600
11.9306
14.1984
16.6634
19.3256
22.1850
30
IO.20OO
12.3420
14.6880
17.2380
19.9920
22.9500
31
10.5400
12-7534
J5-I776
17.8126
20.6584
23.7150
32
10.8800
13.1648
15.6672
18.3872
21.3248
24.4800
33
11.2200
I3-5762
16.1568
18.9618
21.9912
25.2450
34
II.5600
13.9876
16.6464
I9-5364
22.6576
26.0100
35
II.9OOO
14.3990
17.1360
20. 1 1 10
23.3240
26.7750
36
I2.24OO
14.8104
17.6256
20.6856
23.9904
27.5400
40
I3.600O
16.4560
19.5840
22.9840
26.6560
30.6000
44
14.9600
18.1016
21.5424
25.2824
29.3216
33.6600
48
I6.320O
19.7472
23.5008
27.5808
31.9872
36.7200
54
18.3600
22.2156
26.4384
31.0284
35-9856
41.3100
60
2O.40OO
24.6840
29.3760
34.4760
39.9840
45.9000
72
24.4800
29.6208
35.2512
4I.37I2
47.9808
55.0800
CAPACITY OF CYLINDERS.
139
Table Continued.
Dia'r. 1
Inc's. I
Depth.
16
17 18
19
2O
21
I inch.
.8704
.9826 1.1016
1.2274
1.3600
1.4994
2
1.7408
1.9652 2.2032
2.4548
2.7200
2.9988
3
2.6II2
'2.9478 3.3048
3.6822
4.0800
4.4982
4
3.48l6
39304
4.4064
4.9096
5.4400
5.9976
5
4-3520
4-9130
5.5080
6.1370
6.8000
7-4970
6
5.2224
5-8956
6.6096
7-3644
8.1600
8.9964
7
6.0928
6.8782
7.7112
8.5918
9.5200
10.4958
8
6.9632
7.8608
8.8128
9.8192
10.8800
11.9952
9
7.8336
8.8434
9.9144
1 1 .0466
12.2400
13.4946
10
8.7O40
9.8260
1 1. 0160
12.2740
13.6000
14.9940
it
9-5744
10.8086
12.1176
13-5014
14.9600
16.4934
12
10.4448
11.7912
13.2192
14.7288
16.3200
17.9928
13
".3152
12.7738
14.3208
15.9562
17.6800
19.4922
14
12.1856
13-7564
15.4224
17.1836.
19.0400
20.9916
15
13.0560
14.7390
16.5240
18.4110
20.4000
22.4910
16
13.9264
15.7216
17.6256
19.6384
21.7600
23.9904
17
14.7968
16.7042
18.7272
20.8658
23.1200
25-4898
18
1^.6672
17.6868
19.8288
22.0932
24.4800
26.9892
19
16.5376
18.6694
20.9304
23.3206
25.8400
28.4886
20
17.4080
19.6520
22.0320
24-5480
27.2000
29.9880
21
18.2784
20.6346
23-1336
25-7754
28.5600
31-4874
22
19.1488 21.6172
24-2352
27.0028
29.9200
32.9868
23
20.0192 ; 22.5998
25-3368
28.2302
31.2800
34.4862
24
20.8896 23.5824
26.4384
29-4576
32.6400
35-9856
25
21.7600
24.5650
27.5400
30.6850
34.0000
37-4850
26 ....
22.6304
25-5476
28.6416
31.9124
35.36co
38.9844
27
23.5008
26.5302
29-7432
33-1398
36.7200
40.4838
28
24.3712
27.5128
30.8448 34-3672
38.0800
41.9832
29
25.2416
28.4954
31.9464 35-5946
39.4400
43.4826
30
26.1120
29.4780
33.0480 i 36.8220
40.8000
44.9820
31
26.9824
30.4606
34.1496 38-0494
42.1600
46.4814
32
27.8528
31-4432
35.2512 139-2768
43.5200
47.9808
33
28.7232
32.4258
36.3528 140.5042
44.8800
49.4802
34
29-5936 33.4084
37.4544 41-7316
46.2400
50.9796
35
30.4640 34.3910
38.5560 42 959°
47.6000 j 52.4790
36
3L3344
35.3736
39.6576 44.1864
48.9600 53.9784
40
34.8160
39-3040
44.0640 49.0960
54.4000 59-976o
44
38.2976
43-2344
48.4704 j 54-0056
59.8400 65.9736
48
41.7792
47.1648
52.8768 ! 58.9152
65 2800 71.9712
54
47.0016
53.0604
59.4864 66.2796
73.4400 80.9676
60
52.2240
58.9560
66.0960
736440
81.6000 89.9640
1% 62.6688
70.7472
79-3'52
88.3728
97.9200 i 107.9570
140 TIN, SHEET-IKON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Table Continued.
Diameter in ")
Inches. / " '
Dep'h.
22
23
24
26
28
i 6456
i 7086
2 2Q84
2 6656
2
3.2912
3.5972
3.9168
4.5968
5.3312
4.9368
5.3958
5.8752
6 8952
7 9968
4
6.5824
7 . 1 944
7 8-^6
Q IQ^O
10 6624
8.2280
8 Qcno
9 7Q2O
I I 492O
i"? 3280
6
Q 87^6
10 7916
1 1.7504
13 7904
15 9936
•j
1 1 SIQ2
12 5902
13.7088
1 6 0888
186592
g
13 1648
14 3888
15 6672
18 3872
21 3248
9
10
ii
14.8104
16.4560
18 1016
16.1874
17.9860
IQ 784.6
17.6250
19.5840
21.5424
20.6856
22.9840
25 2824
23.9904
26.6560
2Q ^216
12
19.7472
21.5832
23.5008
27.5808
71.9872
13
21.3928
23 3818
25 4592
29.8792
34.6528
14
27 4176
•?7 7184
15*.
24 6840
26 Q7QO
29.3760
34.4760
39.9840
16
28 7776
-?! •}•}•} A
17 ...
27 9752
-JQ ^762
33.2928
39.0728
45.3152
ii
29 6208
-?2 ^748
35.2512
41.3712
47.9808
\g
31 2664
-?4 17-24
37.2096
43.6696
50 6464
2O
"52 QI2O
9C Q72O
39.1680
45.9680
C-3 -3I->O
21
•74 1:1:76
37 7706
41.1 264
48.2664
55.9796
22
jo c6o2
43.0848
50. 5648
58.6432
23 . .
37 8488
41 ^678
45.0432
52.8632
6 1 3088
24
43 1664
47.0016
55.1616
63 9744
2C .
48 9600
57 4600
66 6400
26
42 78^6
46 7676
CQ Ql84
59 7584
69 "?o?6
27
48 ^622
C2 8768
62 0568
71 9712
28
46 O768
50 3608
64 7?S2
74 6^68
20
66 6536
1O
70 0680
31 . . ,
82 63^6
•?2 .
62 6688
7-7 C4.88
•j-j .
87 0648
•34
66 5856
78 14^6
35
1:7 Cq6o
80 4440
93 2960
06
4O .
78 T?6o
86 1696
117 2860
48
78 0888
86 7728
54
88 8624
07 1244
oe 71:40
124 1 140
143.9420
60
08 7^60
72
18.4830
129.4990
141.0050
165.4850
191.9230
CAPACITY OF CYLINDERS.
141
Table Continued.
Diameter in "1
Inches. / ' ' ' '
Depth.
3O
32
34
36
40
I inch..
3.0600
6.1200
9.1800
12.2400
15.3000
18.3600
21.4200
24.4800
27.5400
30.6000
33.6600
36.7200
39.7800
42.8400
45.9000
48.9600
52.0200
55.0800
58.1400
61.2000
64.2600
67.3200
70.3800
73.4400
76.5000
79.5600
82.6200
85.6800
88.7400
91.8000
94.8600
97.9200
100 9800
3.4816
6.9632
10.4448
13.9264
17.4080
20.8896
24.3712
27.8528
3^-3344
34.8160
38.2976
41.7792
45-2608
48.7424
52.2240
5S-7056
59.1872
62.6688
66.1504
69.6320
73-"36
76.5952
80.0768
83-5584
87.0400
90.5216
94.0032
97.4848
100.9660
104.4480
107.9300
111.4110
114.8930
118.3740
121.8560
125.3380
139.2640
153.1900
167.1170
188.0060
208.8960
250.6750
3-9304
7.8608
11.7912
15.7216
19.6520
23-5824
27.5128
31-4422
35-3736
39-3740
43-2344
47.1648
51.0952
55-0256
58.9560
62.8864
66.8168
70.7472
74.6776
78.6080
82.5384
86.4688
90.3992
94.3296
98.2600
102.1900
106.1210
110.0510
113.9820
117.9120
121.8420
125.7730
129.7030
133-6340
137-5640
141.4940
157.2160
172.9380
188.6590
212.2420
235.8240
282.9890
4.4064
8.8128
13.2192
17.6256
22.0320
26.4384
30.8448
35.2512
39.6576
44.0640
48.4704
52.8768
57.2832
61.6896
66.0960
70.5024
74.9088
79-3152
83.7216
88.1280
92-5344
96.9408
101.3470
105.7540
110.1600
114.5660
118.9730
123.3790
127.7860
132.1920
136.5980
141.0050
145.4110
149.8180
154.2240
158.6300
176.2560
193.8820
211.5070
237.9460
264.3840
317.2610!
5-4400
10.8800
16.3200
21.7600
27.2000
32.6400
38.0800
43-5200
48.9600
54.4000
59.8400
65.2800
70.7200
76.1600
81.6000
87.0400
92.4800
97.9200
103.3600
108.8000
114.2400
119.6800
125.1200
130.5600
136.0000
141.4400
146.8800
152.3200
157.7600
163.2000
168.6400
174.0800
179.5200
184.9600
190.4000
195.8400
217.6000
239.3600
261.1200
293.7600
326.4000
391.6800
2
3 ...
4
6
7
8
Q .
IO
•II.. .0
12
I"?
14
JC
16.
17
18
•IQ
20
2\
22
23
24.
25
26
27
28
20 ' .
•?o
V
72
104.0400
107.1000
110.1600
122.4000
134.6400
146.8800
165.2400
183.6000
220.3200
•5C
?6 .
40
44
48
•ZA
•60
J2
142 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Table Continued,
Diameter in \
Inches. J ' '
Depth.
44
48
54
6O
72
6.5824
13.1648
19.7472
26.3296
32.9120
39-4944
46.0768
52.6592
59.2416
65.8240
72.4064
78.9888
85-5712
92-1536
98.7360
105.3180
7.8336
15.6672
23.5008
31-3344
39.1680
47.0016
54-8352
62.6688
70.5024
78.3360
86.1696
94.0032
101.8370
109-6700
117.5040
125.3380
133.1710
141.0050
148.8380
156.6720
164.5060
172.3390
180.1730
188.0060
195.8400
203.6740
211.5070
219.3410
227.1740
235.0080
242.8420
250.6750
258.5090
266.3420
274.1760
282.0100
3 13-3440
344.6780
3760130
423.0140
470.0160
564.0190
9.9144
19.8288
29.7432
39-6576
49.5720
59.4864
69.4008
79-3I52
89.2296
99.1440
109.0580
118.9730
128.8870
138.8020
148.7160
158.6300
168.5450
178.4590
188.3740
198.2880
208.2020
218.1170
228.0310
237.9460
247.8600
257-7740
267.6890
277.6030
287.5180
297.4320
307.3460
317.2610
327.1750
337.0900
347.0040
356.9180
396-5760
436.2340
475.8910
535.378o
'594.8640
713-8370
12.2400
24.4800
36.7200
48.9600
61.2000
73-44oo
85.6800
97.9200
110.1600
122.4000
134.6400
146.8800
159.1200
171.3600
183.6000
195.8400
208.0800
220.3200
232.5600
244.8000
257.0400
269.2800
281.5200
293.7600
306.0000
318.2400
330.4800
342.7200
354.9600
367.2000
379.4400
391.6800
403.9200
416.1600
428.4000
440.6400
489.6000
! 1538.5600
1587.5200
660.9600
734.4000
881.2100
17.6256
35.2512
52.8768
70.5024
88.1280
105.7540
123.3790
141.0050
158.6300
176.2560
193.8820
211.5070
229.1330
246.7580
264.3840
282.0100
299.6350
317.2610
3348860
352.5120
370.1380
387-7630
405.3890
423.0140
440.6400
458.2660
475.8910
493-5170
511.1420
528.7680
546.3940
564.0190
581.6450
599.2710
616.8960
634.5220
705.0240
775.5260
846.0290
951.7820
1057.5400
1269.0400
2
e
6
7
8
9
10
ii
13
14
JC ,
16
18
118.4830
125.0660
131.6480
138.2300
144.8130
151.3950
157.9780
164.5600
171.1420
177.7250
184.3070
190.8900
197.4720
204.0540
210.6370
217.2190
223.8020
230.3840
236.9660
263.2960
289.6260
3I5-9550
355-4500
394.9440
4739330
ig
2O
21
27
24
2C
26
27 ..... . ...
28
20
3O
•31
•33 ....
•3-3
•34
•3C
?6
4O
44
48
54
60 . .'.
72
CAPACITY OF CYLINDERS. 143
The Decimal equivalents of the Fractional parts of a
Gallon.
0.03125 of a gallon equals I gill.
0.06250 of a gallon equals ^ pint.
0.09375 of a gallon equals 3 gills.
0.12500 of a gallon equals I pint.
0.15625 of a gallon equals 5 gills.
0.18750 of a gallon equals i^ pint.
0.21875 of a gallon equals 7 gills.
0.25000 of a gallon equals I quart.
0.28125 of a gallon equals 9 gills.
0.31250 of a gallon equals 2]/z pints.
0.34375 of a gallon equals 1 1 gills.
0.37500 of a gallon equals 3 pints.
0.40625 of a gallon , equals 13 gilU
0.43750 of a gallon equals 3^ pints.
0.46875 of a gallon ...... equals 15 gills.
0.50000 of a gallon equals ]/2 gallon.
0.53125 of a gallon .equals 17 gills.
0.56250 of a gallon equals 4^ pints.
0.59375 of a gallon equals 19 gills.
0.62500 of a gallon equals 5 pints.
0.65625 of a gallon , equals 21 gills.
0.68750 of a gallon equals 5^ pints.
0.71875 of a gallon equals 23 gills.
0.75000 of a gallon , equals 3 quarts.
0.78125 of a gallon equals 25 gills.
0.81250 of a gallon. equals 6*4 pints.
0.84375 of a gallon equals 27 gills.
0.87500 of a gallon equals 7 pints.
0.90625 of a gallon equals 29 gills,
0.93750 of a gallon equals 7^ pints.
0.96875 of a gallon equals 31 gills.
I.ooo of a gallon equals I gallon.
Explanation of the Tables. — A very few words are needed
to explain the tables given above, and perhaps the simplest
method of doing so is to apply it to a practical case. Sup-
pose, for instance, it is desired to find the dimensions of
144 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
a cylinder holding 27 gallons. Running down the column
headed 19, we find the number 27.0028 and following the
line across we come to the number 22 ; hence a cylinder
19 inches in diameter and 22 inches deep will hold
27 gallons and .0028 gallon. Turning to the supple-
mentary table we find a gill is equal to .03125 gallon ; so
the capacity of the cylinder in question is about TV gill
more than 27 gallons.
Again, if it is desired to find the depth of a 1 5-inch
cylinder that shall hold 27 gallons, we run down the
column headed 15 till we come to the number 27.54, and
following the line across we find the depth to be 36 inches.
The decimal .54 we find, on consulting the supplementary
table, is equivalent to between i and 2 pints, therefore a 15
inch cylinder 36 inches deep will hold between i and 2
pints more than 27 gallons. Similarly, to find the diam-
eter of a cylinder 15 inches deep that shall hold 27 gal-
lons, we run across the line opposite 15 till we come to the
number 26.976 under the column headed 23. The deci-
mal part according to the small table is equivalent to
between 31 gills and i gallon, so the capacity of a cylinder
15 inches deep and 23 inches in diameter is about ^ gill
less than 27 gallons. Where it is desired to find the capac-
ity of a cylinder, both dimensions of which are given, it
is only necessary to run down the column headed with the
diameter till we come to the line across from the given
depth, where the number found will be the capacity of the
cylinder in gallons. To illustrate : What is the capacity
of a cylinder 29 inches deep and 32 inches in diameter?
Consulting the table in the manner described, we find the
number 100.966, the decimal part of which according to
the second table is about 31 gills, or 3 quarts, i pint, 3
gills; the given cylinder, therefore, holding 100 gallons,
3 quarts, i pint, 3 gills. These examples, we think, fully
illustrate the uses of the table, and serve to show its wide
SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 145
application to the determination of the capacities and di-
mensions of cylindrical vessels. (The Metal Worker.)
SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
The specific gravity of a body is the ratio of its weight
to an equal volume of some other body assumed as a con-
ventional standard. The standard usually adopted for
solids and liquids is rain or distilled water at a common
temperature. In bodies of equal magnitudes the specific
gravities are directly as the weights or as their densities.
In bodies of the same specific gravity the weights will be
as the magnitudes. In bodies of equal weights the spe-
cific gravities are inversely as the magnitudes. The weights
of different bodies are to each other in the compound ratio
of their magnitudes and specific gravities. Hence, it is
obvious that speaking of the magnitude, weight and specific
gravity of a body, if any two of them are given, the third
may be found. A body immersed in a fluid will sink if its
specific gravity be greater than that of the fluid ; if it be
less, the body will rise to the top, and be only partly im-
mersed; and if the specific gravity of the body and fluid
be equal, it will remain at rest in any part of the fluid in
which it may be placed. When a body is heavier than a
fluid it loses as much of its weight when immersed as is
equal to a quantity of the fluid of the same bulk or mag-
nitude. If the specific gravity of the fluid be greater than
that of the body, then the quantity of fluid displaced by
the part immersed is equal to the vreight of the whole body.
And hence, as the specific gravity of the fluid is to that of
the body, so is the whole magnitude of the body to the
part immersed. The specific gravities of equal solids are
as their parts immersed in the same fluid.
A knowledge of the specific gravities of bodies of tech-
nical and economic importance is of interest in so far
10
146 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
1. Furnishes a means of finding the absolute weight of
bodies whose volumes are known.
2. In that it permits the approximate quantitative pro«
portions of the constituents of a mixture ; and
3. As it serves as a sign of genuineness.
Hence, in the following table, the specific gravities
of 119 bodies, used for technical and scientific purposes, are
given.
Table showing the Specific Gravities of Technically Important
Bodies.
2.67
6.72
8.82
8.40
8.54
8.76
8.88
8.6
19-5
19.6
8.79
7.25
7-79
ui5
8.28
21.25
7.02
7.84
7.82
7-63
10.47
10.62
7-30
7.48
6.86
7.04
of
2.63
2.6
Basalt
2.79
1-53
2-45
1.66
2. 2O
i-53
'•9
2.1
2.28
2.76
2.64
2.70
1. 80
0.97
2. 2O
1.25
1.64
1.79
2.46
2.72
i-53
2.40
2.30
2-39
2.49
2.15
0.92
2.46
1.98
2.65
1.64
2-35
2.76
Brick
Chalk
Bell-metal(78copper,22 tin)
Brass
Clay
Clay, potters'
Brass wire
Coal
Earth, clayey, dry
Earth, clayey, fresh.
Gold cast
Glass bottle .
Iron, cast
Gypsum, burnt
Gypsum, cast and dried ...
Gypsum, crude
Iron, wrought
Lead
Nickel
Platinum, hammered
Steel, cast
Lime mortar, dry
Lime mortar, fresh
Limestone
Steel, hammered
Steel, hardened in water.. .
Steel, soft
Marble (Carrara)
Masonry of bricks, dry. . . .
Masonry of quarrystone, dry
Porcelain (Berlin) . .
Silver, hammered
Tin (English Y cast
Tin (English), hammered. .
Zinc, cast....
Porcelain (China)
Porcelain (Meissen).. .....
Porcelain (Sevres)
Pumice stone
Zinc, rolled
Quarrystone ^. . . .
II. — Stones and Varieties
Earths.
Alabaster
Quarrystone, soft
Quartz
Slate
Asbestus . . ,
HEAT.
147
III.— Woods.
Aide-
068
IV.— Seeds.
Barley
0.65
0.76
0.64
0.80
0.70
°53
0.76
077
0-75
0.45
0.77
0.62
0.68
0.70
0.84
0.75
1.034
1.192
0.94
1.04
1.522
0.92
1.970
I.OO
I.OO2
Ash, from the trunk
0.85
0.60
Beans
Basswood
Buckwheat
Beech
0.85
1.03
Clover
Boxwood (Dutch) .
Flaxseed
Boxwood (French)
0.91
0.56
1.32
0.74
0.24
1-35
j 21
Hempseed
Cedar (American)
Indian corn
Lentils ...
Cedar (Indian)
Millet . .
Cork
Oats . .
Peas
Ebony (Mexican).
Fir, from the heart, dry
Fir, from the trunk, green. .
Hickory. . .
0.80
0.62
0.72
0.68
1.26
0-95
0.56
0.79
0.75
1.17
0.72
0.84
0.61
0.66
0.47
O 55
Rape
Rye
Vetches
Wheat
Lignum vitse
V.— fluids.
Beer i 023 to
Mahogany (African)
Mahogany (Cuba)
Mahogany (Domingo)
Maple
Oak, from the heart, green..
Oak, from the trunk, dry.. .
Oak, from the trunk, green..
Oak, sap-wood, dry
Pear
Hydrochloric acid, at 59°F.
Linseed oil
Milk 1.02 to
Nitric acid, at 53.5° F
Rapeseed oil
Sulphuric acid, anhydrous,
at68°F
Water
Poplar
Willow....
0.38
o.;8
Wine (Rhine) 0.992 to
HEAT.
One of the remarkable effects of the application of heat
to matter is, that the same amount will affect equal weights
of dissimilar kinds in different degrees. Thus the amount
of heat that will raise i pound of water from 100° F. to
200° F., will raise 30 pounds of mercury through the same
range. The amount that will raise i pound of water i°,
will raise 14 pounds of air i° F.
The capacity of a body for heat is termed its specific heat,
and may be defined as the number of units of heat neces-
sary to raise the temperature of i pound of that body i° F.
The thermal unit, or unit of heat, is the quantity of heat
148 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
that will raise i pound of pure water i° F., or from 39° to
40° F.
Latent heat is the quantity of heat which has disappeared
from a body owing to an increase of temperature. The
sensible heat is that which is sensible to the touch or meas-
urable by the thermometer.
Latent Heat of Various Substances.
Deg. Fahr.
442
Deg, Fahr,
Lead ifi*
Ammonia .
Beeswax...
Ether . .
860
Sulphur
1441
176
Steam
87 c
Ice
140
••• 493
.0.1970
0.2200
.I.OOOO
. O.O402
.0.2340^
.0.0363.
o 0637
Copper .. .
Specific Heat of L
Solids.
0.0951
Different Substances.
Alumina
Stones, bricks, etc., about.
Liquids.
Water
Gold ..
0.0324
... o 1 138
Lead
o 0314
Silver
Tin. ...
0.0570
Sulphur, melted
Bismuth, melted
Tin, melted
0.0562
0.0955
Brass
0.0939
Mercury
o 0332*
Glass
o 1977
Alcohol
o 6150
Ice
o 5040
.0.5640
.0.4500
.O.SO74
Sulphur
O 2O2O
Charcoal . .
. . .O.2AIO
Ether...
fusing Points of the Principal Metals and other Elements
employed in Alloys.
Deg. Fahr.
Aluminium 1 292 Lead .
Deg. Fahr,
626
Antimony..,
Arsenic 773
Bismuth 504
Cadmium , 608
Copper 1922
Gold 2282
Iron, cast 1922 to 2192
Iron, steel 2372 to 2552
Iron, wrought 2732 to 2912
797 Mercury ,
40
Nickel 2732 to 2912
Phosphorus 1 1 1
Platinum 47 1 2
Silver 1832
Sulphur s 239
Telluriumi 716
Tin 455
Zinc 773
HEAT. 149
Relative Internal Heat- Conducting Power of Bodies,
Substance.
Relative
Conducting
Power.
Substance.
Relative
Conducting
Power.
Gold
IOOO
Zinc
363
Platinum
981
Tin
•?O4
Silver
973
Lead
1 80
Copper. . .
892
Marble
24
Brass
749
Porcelain
12
562 •
Terra-cotta
II
^74
Table of Effects of Heat upon Bodies.
Cast iron thoroughly melts at 2754° Fahrenheit.
Fine gold melts at 1983°
Fine silver melts at 1850°
Copper melts at 2160°
Brass melts at 1900°
Zinc melts at 740°
Lead melts at 594°
Bismuth melts at 476°
Tin melts at 421°
Tin and bismuth (equal parts) melt at 283°
Tin 3 parts, bismuth 5, and lead 2, melt at 212°
Mercury boils at 630°
Linseed oil boils at 600°
Alcohol boils at .. 1 74°
Ether boils at 98°
Mercury melts at 39° "
Expansion of Metals by Heat.
In raising the temperature of bars of various metals from.
32° Fahr. to 212° Fahr., they are found to expand nearly
as follows :
Parts.
' 557
Platinum
Palladium
Antimony
Cast iron
Steel
Wrought iron
Bismuth
Gold....
Parts,
n 1097
IOOO
923
901
824
80 1
718
667
Copper i
Gunmetal (copper8,tin I )
Brass
Speculum metal
Silver
Tin
Lead
Zinc
550
524
517
499
424
350
336
150 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-FL,AiE WORKER.
Comparative Radiating or Absorbent and Reflecting Powers
of Substances.
Substance.
Power.
Radiating or
Absorbing.
Reflecting.
Lamp black
IOO
IOO
IOO
98
93 to 98
9i
90
85
85
72
27
25
23
23
19
'7
24
17
i7
15
n
9
7
7
14
7
7
5
3
3
3
O
O
O
2
7 to 2
9
10
15
15
28
73
75
77
81
81
83
H
11
89
9i
93
93
86
93
93
95
97
97
97
Water
Carbonate of lead
Ice
Gum lac
Silver leaf on glass
Wrought iron, polished
Zinc, polished
Steel, polished
Platinum, a little polished.
Platinum, deposited on copper
Tin
Brass, cast, dead polished
Brass, hammered, dead polished.
Brass, cast, bright polished
Brass, hammered, bright polished
Copper, deposited on iron
Copper, hammered or cast
Gold, plated
Gold, deposited on polished steel
Silver, hammered, polished bright
Silver, cast, polished bright .
TEMPERING.
The article, after being completed, is hardened by being
heated gradually to a bright red, and then plunged into
cold water ; it is then tempered by being warmed grad-
ually and equably, either over a fire or on a piece of heated
TEMPERING. 151
metal, till of the color corresponding to the purpose for
which it is required, as per table below, when it is again
plunged into water.
Corresponding Colors and Temperatures.
A very pale straw - - 430° Lancets \
Straw 450° Razors j
Darker straw ... - 470° Penknives \ All kinds of wood tools,
Yellow 490° Scissors J screw taps.
Brown yellow - ... 500° "j Hatchets, chipping chisels.
Slightly tinged purple - 520° I saws.
Purple 530° ) All kinds of percussive tools.
Dark purple - - - - 550° ) c .
Blue - ^Oo} Springs.
Dark blue 600° Soft for saws.
To Temper by the Thermometer. — Put the articles to be
tempered into a vessel containing a sufficient quantity to
cover them of oil or tallow, sand, or a mixture of 8 parts
bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin ; the whole to be brought
up to, and kept up at, the heat corresponding to the hard-
ness required, by means of a suitable thermometer, till
heated equally throughout. The articles are then withdrawn
and plunged into cold water.
If no thermometer is available, it may be observed that
oil or tallow begins to smoke at 430°, or straw color, and
that it takes fire on a light being presented, and goes out
when the light is withdrawn, at 570°, or blue.
To Temper Brass or to Draw its Temper. — Brass is ren-
dered hard by hammering or rolling ; therefore, when you
make a thing of brass necessary to be in temper, you must
prepare the material before shaping the article. Temper
may be drawn from brass by heating it to a cherry red, and
then simply plunging it into water, the same as though you
were going to temper steel.
To Temper Drills. — Select none but the finest and best
steel for your drills. In making them never heat higher
than a cherry red, and always hammer till nearly cold.
152 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Do all your hammering in one way, for if, after you have
flattened your piece out, you attempt to hammer it back
to a square or a round, you spoil it. When your drill is in
proper shape heat it to a cherry red and thrust it into a
piece of resin, or into quicksilver.
Some use a solution of potassium cyanide and rain water
for tempering their drills ; but for my part I have always
found the resin or quicksilver to work best.
To Temper Gravers. — Gravers and other instruments
larger than drills may be tempered in quicksilver, as above ;
or, you may use lead instead of quicksilver. Cut down
into the lead, say half an inch ; then, having heated your
instrument to a light cherry heat, press it firmly into the
cut. The lead will melt around it, and an excellent temper
will be imparted. It is said that the engravers and watch-
makers of Germany harden their tools in sealing wax. The
tool is heated to whiteness and plunged into the wax, with-
drawn after an instant and plunged in again — the process
being repeated until the steel is too cold to enter the wax.
The steel is said to become, after this process, almost as
hard as the diamond, and when touched with a little oil of
turpentine, the tools are excellent for engraving and for
piercing the hardest metals.
Mixtures for Tempering. — By melting together about
i gallon of spermaceti oil, 2 pounds of tallow and ^
pound of wax, a mixture is obtained very convenient for
tempering any kind of steel articles of small size. Adding
i pound of resin it is used for the tempering of larger arti-
cles. The addition of resin must be made with care, for
an excess of this material renders the steel too hard and
brittle. After several months' use the mass loses its energy ;
it must then be wholly renewed, taking care to thoroughly
cleanse the bottom of the vessel which contained it.
Another mixture, the efficiency of which has likewise
WATER. 153
been proved in practice, consists of 20 gallons of sper-
maceti oil, 20 pounds of tallow, 10 gallons neatsfoot oil, i
pound of pitch and 3 pounds of resin. The pitch and
resin are melted together, then the three other materials
are successively added, and the whole is heated in an iron
pot till all the water is evaporated. This is ascertained
when the mass takes fire at the approach of a burning chip-
of wood ; the flame is immediately put out by hermetically
shutting the pot with a cover. The tempering is in both
cases effected as follows : Saw-blades, for instance, are
heated in special ovens, and when they have reached the
required temperature, are dipped in the mass contained in
tubs arranged side by side. For a continuous manufacture
a certain number of tubs are used, so as to allow the mass
time for cooling during the progress of the operation. As-
soon as the blade is cooled, it is withdrawn from the bath
and cleaned with a piece of leather, so that there remains-
still on it a thin layer of grease. It is then passed over a
coke fire till the grease catches fire and burns with a clear
smoke. In this way the blade acquires elasticity. If it
is desired very hard, a part only of the grease is allowed
to be burned ; the more softness is desired, the more the
burning is completed. For springs, the flame is left to
burn itself out. If the objects are of various forms and
sizes, the burning is repeated on the several parts till all
are deemed equally tempered. The blades are finished by
hammering and heating them again on a clear coke fire
till they return to a straw-yellow hue. The coloration is-
then taken away by washing in dilute hydrochloric acidr
and afterwards in plenty of water.
WATER.
Pure water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in the
proportion of 2 measures of hydrogen to i of oxygen, or
r. part of hydrogen to 8 of oxygen ; or oxygen, 89 parts
154 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
by weight, and by measure i part ; hydrogen by weight,
ii parts, and by measure 2 parts. But pure water is not
attainable, nor is it to be found in the laboratory of the
chemist.
With the barometer at 30° water boils in the open air,
at sea-level at 212° Fahr., and in vacuum at 88° F. The
less the pressure of the atmosphere, the lower is the tem-
perature at which water will boil. The pressure of the
atmosphere at sea-level is 14.7 pounds per square inch,
pressing equally and in all directions. A cubic foot of
water evaporated under a pressure of one atmosphere, or
15 pounds per square inch, occupies a space of 1,700 cubic
feet.
Salt water boils at a higher temperature than fresh, owing
to its greater density, and because the boiling-point of
water is increased by any substance that enters into chem-
ical combination with it. Mud and other substances, so
long as they are kept in mechanical solution, will not in-
crease the boiling-point of water ; when these substances
settle, and burn to the interior of the boilers, the boiling-
point will be increased. The density of water decreases
as the temperature increases, since heat destroys cohesion
and expands the particles, causing them to occupy greater
space. The power of water to hold chemical substances,
such as salts of lime, in solution, decreases as the tempera-
ture increases.
The law of expansion by heat and contraction by cold is
true as relating to water, with this exception, that as hot
water cools down from the boiling-point it contracts until
45° F. is reached ; but if cooled down from this point, it
•expands again.
When a substance solidifies or freezes, there is always a
change of volume, which usually is contraction ; but, in
the case of water, an expansion takes place. The expan-
sion of water at the freezing-point i> by no means gradual,
WEIGHT OF WATER. 155
but taices place almost instantaneously, and the amount of
force exerted at the time is enormous. It has been demon-
strated by actual experiments, that in freezing, water exerts
a pressure of about 30,000 pounds per square inch.
The specific gravity of all waters is not the same. Sea
water varies from 1.0269 to 1.0285 — the mean being 1.0277,
thus requiring 34.9741 cubic feet of sea water to make one
ton, and about 35 cubic feet of fresh water. Water is
heavier at night than during the day, owing to the atmos-
phere being more dense and the additional weight of the
dew.
Weight of Water.
.03617 pounds,
pounds,
pounds.
U. S. gallons,
pounds,
pounds,
pounds,
pounds,
pounds.
U. S. gallons,
pounds,
pounds,
pounds,
pounds,
pounds,
pounds.
Centre of pressure is at two-thirds depth from surface.
Water has the greatest specific heat of all known liquids
except hydrogen, and is therefore taken as the standard for
all solids and fluids. The latent heat of water is 143° F.,
and that of ice 140°, as it absorbs that amount of heat in
changing from a liquid to a solid state.
When water in a vessel is subjected to the action of fire
it readily imbibes the heat, or fluid principle of which the
12 Cubic inches
.equal to. . .
•434
I Cubic foot
.equal to.. .
.. 62.5
i Cubic foot
equal to. . .
7.50
1.8 Cubic foot
.equal to.. .
.. 112.00
35.84 Cubic feet
. equal to. . .
..224O.OO
I Cylindrical inch
.equal to.. .
.028,
12 Cylindrical inches ...
.equal to.. . .
.341
I Cylindrical foot
..equal to. . .
.. 49-10
I Cylindrical foot
.equal to. .
6.00
2.282 Cylindrical feet
. equal to. .
.. II2.OO
45.64 Cylindrical feet
.equal to.. .
. 224O.OO
11.2 Imperial gallons
equal to. . .
.. II2.OO
224 Imperial gallons
. equal to.. .
. .2240.00
13.44 United States gallons.
.equal to. . .
.. 112.00
268.8 United States gallons.
. equal to. . .
..2240.00
156 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
rfire is the immediate cause, and sooner or later, according
to the intensity of the heat, attains a temperature of 212° F.
If, at this point of temperature, the water be not inclosed,
but exposed to atmospheric pressure, ebullition will take
place, and steam or vapor will ascend through the water,
carrying with it the superabundant heat, or that which the
water cannot, under such circumstances of pressure, ab-
sorb, to be retained, and to indicate a higher temperature.
Water, in attaining the aeriform state, is thus uniformly
confined to the same laws, under every degree of pressure ;
•but, as the pressure is augmented, so is the indicated tem-
perature proportionately elevated. Hence the various den-
sities of steam, and corresponding degrees of elastic force.
Effects Produced by Water in its Natural State.
Because of liquids possessing the properties of gravity
^md capability of flowing freely in every direction, sides of
vessels, flood-gates, sluices, etc., sustain a pressure equal to
the product of the area multiplied by half the depth of the
fluid, and by its gravity in equal terms of unity.
But when a sluice or opening through which a liquid may
issue is under any given continued head, the pressure is
^qual to the product of the area multipled into the height
from the centre of the opening to the surface of the fluid.
EXAMPLE i. — Required the pressure of water on the sides
of a cistern 18 feet in length, 13 in width, and 9 in depth.
The terms of measurement or unity are in feet ; i cubic
foot of water =62.5 Ibs. ; hence,
18 X 9 X 2 -f 13 X 9 X 2 — 558 X 4-5 X 62.5 =
156937.5 Ibs. ; weight of water on bottom = 18 X
13 X 9 X62.5 = 131625 Ibs.
EXAMPLE 2. — Required the pressure on a sluice 3 feet
•square, and its centre 30 feet from the surface of the water,
3 X 3 X 30 X 62.5 = 16875 lbs- pressure.
AIR. 157
AIR.
Effects Produced by Air in its Natural, and also in its
Rarefied State. — The mean pressure of the atmosphere at
the level of the sea is equal to 14.7 Ibs. per square inch,
or 2116.4 Ibs. per square foot. This is called one atmos-
phere of pressure. The following are measures of pressures :
One atmosphere of pressure : i. A column of air at 32° F.,
27,801 feet, or about 5^ miles high, of uniform density
equal to that of air at the level of the sea. 2. A column
of mercury at 32° F., 29.922 inches or 76 centimetres
high ; nearly 30 inches. At 62° F. the height is 30 inches.
3. A column of water at 62° F., 33.947 feet high; nearly
34 feet.
A pressure of i Ib. per square inch : i. A column of air
at 32° F., 1891 feet high, of uniform pressure as above. 2.
A column of mercury at 32° F., 2.035 inches high. At
62° F. the height is 2.04 inches. 3. A column of water at
62° F., 0.1925 inch high.
The density or weight of one cubic foot of pure air, un-
der a pressure of one atmosphere, or 14.7 Ibs. per square
inch, is,
At 32° F. = 0.080728 Ib., or 1.29 oz., or 565.1 grains.
At 62° F. = 0.076097 " 1.217 " 532.7 "
The weight of a litre of pure air, under one atmosphere,
at 32° F., is 19.955 grains.
The weight of air, compared with that of water at three
notable temperatures, and at 52.3°, under one atmosphere,
is as follows :
Weight of water at 32° F., 773.2 times the weight of air at 32° F.
« « « 39.1° R) 7^.27 „ «« „ „ 32o jr
« « « 62° F., 772.4 " " " " 32° F.
" 62° F., 819.4 " " " " 62° F.
" 52.3° F., 820 " « » « 62° F.
The volume of i Ib. of air at 32° F., and under one
158 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
atmospheric pressure, is 12.387 cubic feet. The volume at
62° F. is 13.141 cubic feet.
The specific heat of air, at constant pressure, is 0.2377 ;
and at constant volume, o. 1688, that of water being = i.
Air, like all other gases, is rendered lighter by the appli-
cation of heat, for then the particles of the mass are re-
pelled from each other, or rarefied, and occupy a greater
space. Rarefied air, being specifically lightest, mounts
above that of common density; hence change of temper-'
ature, and the principal cause of winds.
Table of the Expansion of Atmospheric Air by Heat.
Degrees of
Fahrenheit.
Bulk.
Degrees of
Fahrenheit.
Bulk.
Degrees of
Fahrenheit.
Bulk.
32° 1000
65°
1077
100°
1152
35°
1007
70°
1089
120°
1104
40°
1021
75°
1099
140°
1235
45°
1032
80°
1 1 10
1 60°
1275
50°
1043
85°
II2I
1 80°
I3r5
55°
1055
90°
1132
200°
i364
60°
1066
95°
II42 || 212°
1376
The pressure or gravity of the atmosphere, being equal
to a column of water 34 feet in height, is the means or
principle on which rests the utility of the common pump,
also of the siphon and all other such hydraulic applica-
tions. In a pump, the internal pressure on the surface of
the liquid is removed by the action of the bucket ; and as
by degrees the density becomes lessened, so the water rises
by the external pressure to the above-named height ; and
at such height it will remain, unless, by some derangement
of construction taking place, the atmospheric fluid is
allowed to enter and displace the liquid column. But ob-
serve, if the temperature of the water or other liquid be so
elevated that steam or vapor arise through it, then, accord-
MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATE. 159
ing to the vapor's accumulation of density, may the action
of the pump be partially or wholly destroyed ; and the
only means of evasion in such cases is, to place the work-
ing bucket beneath the surface of the liquid which is re-
quired to be raised.
MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATE.
The first step in the manufacture is to cleanse the surface
of the sheet-iron from oxide, dust and grease. This is
effected by dipping the sheets in a pickle of dilute sulphuric
acid (i acid to 1 6 to 20 water). The pickle is prepared by
pouring the acid in a thin stream into the water, keeping
the latter constantly agitated. The sheets remain in the
pickle until all the oxide is dissolved and the surface shows
a dead-gray color. Pickling is frequently succeeded by
scouring with fine, hard sand and water, the numerous
scratches produced thereby upon the surface of the sheets
promoting the adhesion of the coating of tin to be applied
later on.
In order to obtain sheets of sufficient^softness, they have
to be annealed ; but to prevent them from becoming again
coated with a layer of oxide when exposed to a red heat,
the air has to be excluded during the annealing process.
For this purpose the plates are placed, to the number of
about i, 800 — for common sizes — in piles, within a cast-
iron box about 2 feet square, the lid carefully luted on to
prevent air entering, and then placed with severa/ similarly
filled boxes in a stove constructed very much in the shape
of a reverberatory furnace, but considerably larger and
having its bed on a level with the ground. The fire-bridge
being tolerably high, the flame from the grate rolls slowly
over the boxes and raises them gradually to a cherry-red
heat, at which temperature they are maintained during 12
hours, and then withdrawn. When quite cold the covers
are taken off, the plates taken out, carefully examined, and
160 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
sorted. If the heat has been too high, some of the plates
will be found adhering to one another ; if too mild, they
will not be much improved by the operation ; and if air
should have entered, they will be either partially or com-
pletely converted into scale or oxide of iron. After being
subjected to this process the plates have a deep, plum-color
bloom on their surfaces, due to a very thin film or coating-
of oxide that has formed upon them. They are now passed
three times through a pair of rolls placed in close proximity
so that the plates passing between them are subjected to
great pressure, but not sufficient to enlarge them. After
having been thus cold-rolled, as it is termed, the plates are
extremely smooth and possessed of a lustrous and dappled
appearance, still owing to the thin oxidation. One effect
of this rolling is to make the plates brittle once more, and
therefore to necessitate a second annealing, which is per-
formed in the same way as the preceding ; but the heat is
milder and the time reduced to 5 or 6 hours. Another
sorting follows, when the good plates are sent to the tin-
house. In the tin house the plates are again pickled in a
warm but more dilute bath of sulphuric acid than that
already used, during ten minutes; then removed and well
rubbed with sand and water, to remove all dirt and scale.
They should now have a smooth, perfectly clean, grayish
metallic surface, in which state they can be kept for some
time in cold water without injury, and are ready for tin-
ning.
The apparatus for this process consists of a series of
baths, set side by side, for the convenience of the work-
men, each bath having a fire beneath it, to keep the mate-
rials they contain in a fluid state. These baths or pots are
six in number, namely: i, the tinman's pot; 2, the tin
pot ; 3, the washing or dipping pot ; 4, the grease pot ; 5,
the cold pot, and 6, the list pot. The tinman's pot is full
of melted grease, and in this the plates are immersed and
MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATE. 161
left till all the moisture upon them is evaporated and they
become completely covered with the grease. From the
tinman's pot the plates are removed to the tin pot and
plunged into the bath of melted tin, protected with a layer
of grease, which it contains, and remain in it for about 20
minutes. In the first dipping the alloy is imperfect, and
the surface not uniformly coated ; consequently, the plates
are removed to the dipping and washing pot, which is
divided into two compartments. The first immersion takes
place in the larger division, which contains melted tin cov-
ered with grease, like the last, and here the plate is left
sufficiently long to make the alloy complete, and to sepa-
rate any superfluous tin which might have adhered to the
surface. The workman then takes out each plate sepa-
rately to a table between the wash pot and the grease pot,
and wipes it on each side with a brush of hemp to remove
any excess of tin ; to obliterate the marks of the brush, he
quickly dips the plate into the second compartment of the
wash pot, and then at once into the grease pot. This sec-
ond compartment of the wash pot always contains the
purest tin j and as it becomes alloyed with iron, it is re-
moved to the first compartment of the same, and thence to
the tin pot. The grease pot is filled with melted grease,
and great care is necessary to maintain it at the proper tem-
perature. Its purposes are to allow any superfluous tin to
run off, and especially to prevent the alloy on the surface
of the plate cooling more rapidly than the iron. If this
were neglected its surface would be cracked. After 10
minutes' immersion in the grease pot, the plate is removed
to the cold pot, which is filled with tallow heated to a com-
paratively low temperature. The pots 4 and 5 serve the
purpose of annealing the plates, and of cooling them down
to a low temperature. The last one in the series is the list
pot, and is a small cast-iron bath kept at a sufficiently high
temperature, its bottom covered with tin to the depth of a
11
162 TIN. SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.'
quarter of an inch. In this the edges of the plates are
dipped, and left in it till the wire of tin, which usually
forms on them in the course of the foregoing processes, melts,
and is removed by a quick blow on the plate with a stick.
The articles are now tin plates ; but before they are sent
to market, they undergo some further treatment. They
are first carefully rubbed with bran to clean them from
grease and dirt ; they then receive another rubbing with a
pad of sheep-skin, retaining its wool, and finally they are
sent to the sorter whose duty it is to pick out defective
plates and to arrange the good ones in piles according to
their size and quality. According to experience, for a box
of tin-plate, as furnished by the English factories, and
which contains from 119 to i261bs. of tin plate, 7^ to 9^
Ibs. of tin, about 2 Ibs. of palm oil or tallow and 9 to n
ibs. of sulphuric acid are required. It will be seen that
the above-described method of making tin plate, which is
the one used in England, is rather tedious and expensive,
but the product obtained is an excellent one.
In Germany the preparation of the plates for tinning is
the same as that used in England, but the operation of
tinning differs essentially. The first step in the process is
the so-called burning-in of plates, which is effected in the
burning-in pot. The latter is about i8}4 inches long, 14^
inches wide and 18^2 inches deep, and is filled with melted
tin covered with a layer of fat.
The plates are placed to the number of about 200 within
the pot, then taken out in lots of about 25 each and cooled
in water. When all the plates have been removed, the pot
is divided into two compartments, one larger than the
other, by inserting an iron plate in grooves in the sides of
the pot. A portion of the burnt-in plates are now placed
in the larger compartment and after remaining for some
time in the tin bath, they are taken out separately and
placed upon iron frames to drain off. This operation is
MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATE. 163
called burning off. The burnt-off plates are then separately
plunged into the smaller compartment of the pot. After
removal from this compartment and draining off, they are
considered sufficiently tinned and the wire of tin formed
in the course of the operation is removed in a manner sim-
ilar to that as in the English process.
Quality of Tin Plate. — The tests for tin plates are ductil-
ity, strength and color, and to possess these, the iron must
be of the best quality, and all the process be conducted
with care and skill. The following conditions are inserted
in some specifications, and will serve to indicate the
strength and ductility of first-class tin plates :
1. They must bear cutting into strips of a width equal to
ten times the thickness of the plate, both with and across
the fibre, without splitting ; the strips must bear, while hot,
being bent upon a mould to a sweep equal to four times
the width of the strip.
2. While cold, the plates must bear bending in a head-
ing machine, in such a manner as to form a cylinder, the
diameter of which shall at most be equal to sixty times the
thickness of the plate. In these tests, the plate must show
neither flaw nor crack of any kind.
To Recognize a Content of Lead in Tin. — Make a solu-
tion of potassium chromate in water. Then apply a few
drops of pure acetic acid to the tin to be examined, and
a whitish coating will appear. To this whitish coating
apply a few drops of the potassium chromate solution ; if
the coating turns yellow, the tin contains lead, and the
more the greater the intensity of the yellow color. The
reaction is so sharp as to indicate iWinnj- Part °f ^ea(^-
Crystallized Tin Plate. — Crystallized tin plate is a varie-
gated primrose appearance produced upon the surface of
tin plate by applying to it in a heated state some dilute
nitro-muriatic acid for a few seconds, then washing it with
water, drying and coating it with lacquer. The figures are
164 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
more or less beautiful and diversified, according to the de-
gree of heat and relative dilution of the acid. Place the
tin plate, slightly heated, over a tub of water, and rub its
surface with a sponge dipped in a liquor composed of 4 parts
of aquafortis and 2 of distilled water, holding i of common
salt or sal ammoniac in solution. Whenever the crystalline
spangles seem to be thoroughly brought out, the plate must
be immersed in water, washed either with a feather or a
little cotton (taking care not to rub off the film of tin that
forms the feathering), forthwith dried with a low heat, and
coated with a lacquer varnish ; otherwise it loses its lustre
in the air. If the whole surface is not plunged at once in
cold water, but if it be partially cooled by sprinkling water
on it, the crystallization will be finely variegated with large
and small figures. Similar results will be obtained by
blowing cold air through a pipe on the tinned surface while
it is just passing from the fused to the solid state.
Size, Length, Breadth and Weight of Tin Plates.
Brand Mark.
No. of
Sheets
in Box.
Length ar
Breadth
d
Weight per
Box.
c
22?
10
cwt o qr olb
22?
Hbv
I o
22?
14 by
I 21
22?
2 14.
22?
•7 7
xxxxx
225
14 by
10
O O
xxxxxx
D C
225
14 by
10
I2'/
0 21
Dx
D xx
IOO
IOO
17 by
17 bv
l#
o 14
I 7
D xxx
IOO
17 by
12 Vt
2 o
D xxxx
IOO
1 2 I/
I21/
D xxxxxx
S D C.
I2/£
S D x.
S D xx
S D xxx
• 1
S D xxxx
2OO
IS by
II
S D xxxxx
S D xxxxxx
200
20O
*5 ]>y
'5 by
II
II
I 20
2 I3
TIN ROOFING AND TIN WORK. 165
Tin Roofing and Tin Work. — Tin roofing is measured by
the square of 100 superficial feet ; hips, valleys and flash-
ings, by the foot lineal. Gutters and down-spouts (or con-
ductors and leaders) are measured by the foot lineal, and
are rated generally by their diameters, but sometimes by
their girt.
A box of roofing tin contains 112 sheets, 14 X 20 inches,
and weighs from no to 145 Ibs. per box — the Ponty-
miester MF, and other good brands of 1C charcoal tin,
weighing an average of 112 Ibs. per box, or i Ib. per sheet,
and X tin, 140 Ibs. per box, or T ^ Ib. per sheet. Roofing
tin can now be had double size, or 20 X 28 inches, weighing
1C 125 Ibs. per box, and X tin 283 Ibs. per box. This
latter size is the most economical in its use, saving the ma-
terial and labor of one-fourth of the seams and ribs.
One sheet of tin, 14 X 20 inches, will cover 235^
inches superficial, or i foot 7^ inches superficial of stand-
ing-joint roof; and a box of 112 sheets will cover 182 feet
14 inches of roof, allowing i inch and i^ inches for the
two side ribs, and % inch for top and yz inch for bottom
laps.
One sheet, 14 X 20 inches, will cover, of flat-lock roofing,
2S5 superficial inches, or i foot 9^ inches ; and a box of
112 sheets, 198 feet 3 inches, allowing $ inch all around
for joints; 61^ sheets, 14X20 inches, will cover one
square of 100 feet superficial; and weigh 1C tin 61^ Ibs.,
and X tin 76^ Ibs.
In these calculations there is no allowance for wastage
on hips, valleys, flashings, combings, etc., which are con-
trolled partly by the shape and size of the roof, but mostly
by the skill and care of the workman.
The following sizes work the tin plates without any
waste, and with a single seam in the pipes. Intermediate
and larger sizes either leave a waste strip of tin on every
sheet, or require additional work in seaming the pieces to-
gether.
166 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Table showing the Lengths and Diameters of Pipes, macte
from Sheets, and also the amount contained in one Box.
Sheets.
Boxes.
Diameter
of Pipe.
Number of
Sheets.
Size of
Sheets.
Length of
Pipe.
Number in
Boxes.
Length of
Pipe.
Inches.
l&
One sheet.
lOne sheet.
Two sheets.
One sheet.
iOne sheet.
Inches.
14 X 20
14 X 20
14 X 20
14 X 20
14 X 20
Ft. In.
3 4l/2
2 3
3 3
Sheets.
i
112
112
Feet.
126
182
189
Semicircular Gutters.
Sheets.
Girt.
Number of
Sheets.
Size of
Sheets.
Length of
Gutter.
Number in
Boxes.
Length of
Gutter.
Inches.
19
13
One sheet.
One sheet.
Inches.
14 X 20
14 X 20
Ft. In.
i iX
i rA
Sheets.
112
112
Feet.
126
182
Boxes.
Galvanized Iron. — This material, which is of compara-
tively recent origin, is much used in this country for rain-
*vat*r guttering and cornices for architectural purposes.
Some of these cornices, when containing many members
of moulding, especially if they are circular in plan, need
much skill. In general principle the metal is bent over
the hatchet-stake with mallet or hammer, much as in mak-
ing other guttering, assisting with swages where necessary.
The following observations on circular work are by Mr. C.
A. Vaile.
In making up circular mouldings, it is necessary to have
the material sufficiently heavy to bear shrinking and
stretching without breaking or becoming brittle. The best
plan to bring mouldings to the required shape is as follows:
GALVANIZED IRON. 167
Take a piece of hard wood (oak) 4X4 inches and 12
Fig. 164.
Fig. .65.
inches long, make a profile of work intended, and on one end
of this piece make a die of the desired shape ; to this must
Fig. 166.
Fig. .67.
be fitted a plunger, allowing the thickness cf iron to inter-
168 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
vene. The die is shown in the annexed figures: Fig. 164
is the top; Fig. 165 the sectional view of the plunger and
die for a half-round mould. Fig. 164 is to be made in the
same circle as the work. Figs. 166 and 167 are the same
Fig. 1 68.
of a different moulding. Fig. 164 or 167 is to be placed
in an oak block as Fig. 168. The right hand portion
should be of sufficient length to answer for a seat to the
operator. Fig. 169 is a mallet about 12 inches long. To
make these dies imagine the cap to be
stamped from one piece, and get out the die
and plunger accordingly. The tools re-
quired will be a saw, brace and y2 inch
bit, a straight chisel, two or three sizes of
gouges and a rasp curved at one end.
When the iron is cut to the required pat-
tern it is raised in these dies ; shifting the
mould to and fro each time it is forced into
the die with a blow on the plunger from
the mallet, until it is brought to the required
shape. A little practice will soon demon-
strate the utility of this method, and also
its superiority over the hammering proc-
ess.
When work is to be joined, never place two raw edges
together. On one of the members turn ^ of an inch
edge, and lap the member on this, and soak the sol-
der in well, so as to firmly unite the pieces, and on the
top strip that is to be built in the. wall turn a half-inch
^S
,
^, J--....?
^^ __
S
.^
Fig. 169
.
GALVANIZED JEON, ETC.
edge, to stiffen and answer the purpose of straps to hold the
cap in position. An edge of the same kind should also
be turned on bottom strip, to extend over the frame ; and
if the cap is to have a drop or corbel, let the inside of the
drop or corbel extend back past the frame at least one
inch, to secure the corbel to the frame, and the other side
of corbel have a half-inch edge to fit against the wall.
Should the work be for a building already up, the strip
should have an edge sufficient to nail through into mortar
joints. Good judgment is required in putting up work of
this character, to make it a success.
American Lap Weld Iron Boiler Flues, Manufactured by
the READING IRON COMPANY.
Outside
Diameter
W. G.
Nos.
Weight
per Foot,
About
Outside
Diameter.
W. G.
Nos.
Weight
per Foot,
About
.gin.
16
15
I Ib.
I I-IO
3K
ii
10
4
ltf
14
JK
4
10
5^2
2
13
2
5
G
7^£
2X
12
2/^
6
8
10
2^
12
2^
7
7
13
2|^
II
3/^
8
6
3
II
3K
Calibre and Weights of Fountains or Aqueduct Pipes.
Very light Lead Pipes for Hydraulic Rams, and for con-
ducting water at long distances, under slight pressure or
head of water.
Calibre.
Weight
per foot.
Av.
ength.
Calibre.
Weight
per foot.
Av.
length.
# inch
H inch. . .
oz.
6
8
ft.
1600
1 200
tf inch
I inch
Ibs. oz.
I 2
I 12
ft.
550
400
10
IOOO
1 1/ inch
2
2?O
#inch
12
900
\yz inch
2 4
20O
170 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-nLATE WORKER.
Calibre and Weight of Lead Pipe.
Calibre.
Weight
per ft.
Av.
length.
Calibre.
Weight
per foot.
Av.
length.
Ibs. oz.
ft.
Ibs. oz.
jE
# in. light
8
300
\\ in. medium..
5 4
28
strong. . . .
12
225
strong.. . .
6 4
24
ex. strong
I 4
1 20
ex. strong
7 2
21
Yl in. light
12
225
l^in. ex. light..
3 12
42
medium.. | I
ISO
light ....
4 8
33
strong.... i 8
100
medium. .
5 8
27
ex. strong1 2
75
strong. . . .
6 8
23
Kin- light
I
*5o
ex. strong
8 4
18
medium.. I 4
1 20
2 in. ex. light..
4 8
33
strong.. ..
I 12
85
light
5 8
27
ex. strong
2 7
60
medium. .
7
21
# in. ex. light. . ' 14
1 20
strong.. ..
8
18
light . . . .; 112
85
ex. strong
9 8
15
medium.. 2 4
65
2jin. T3ff thick..
7 13
15
strong 2 8
60
% thick..
8 13
iS
ex. strong! 3
5°
T\ thick..
13 ii
15
^ in. ex. light..
i 8
100
}i thick..
16 12
15
light
2
75
3 in. waste.. ..
5
15
medium. .
strong.. ..
2 8
3
60
5°
§ thick.,
thick..
9 5
12 10
15
15
ex. strong
3 10
43
^ thick..
16
15
I in. ex. light..
2 4
65
ft thick..
19 ii
15
light
2 12
55
3^in. ]4 thick..
15
IS
medium..
3 8
45
T\ thick..
18 5
15
strong.. ..
4
38
ft thick..
21 12
15
ex. strong
3 12
42
TV thick..
26 13
15
llin. ex. light..
2 12
55
4 in. waste.. . .
5 5
15
light
3 4
46
% thick..
16 12
15
medium..
4
38
T55 thick..
21
15
strong. . . .
4 8
33
ft thick..
25 4
J5
ex. strong
6
25
T76 thick..
3°
15
I Jin. ex. light. .
3 8
45
4^ in. waste. . . .
5 12
IS
light
4 4
35
5 in. waste
8
15
To ascertain the Weights of Pipes of various Metals, and
any Diameter required.
RULE. — To the interior diameter of the pipe, in inches,
add the thickness of the metal ; multiply the sum by the
decimal number opposite the required thickness and under
PIPES.
171
the metal's name ; also by the length of the pipe in feet ;
and the product is the weight of the pipe in pounds.
Thick,
inch.
Wr'ght
Iron.
Copper
Lead.
Thick,
inch.
Wr'ght
Iron.
Copper
Lead.
^
.326
•38
•483
A
1.627
1.9
2.417
TS
.6$|
.76-
.967
A
1.95 | 2.28
2.9
?
.976
i-3
1.14
1-52
i-45
1-933
?
2.277
2.6
2.66
3-04
3.383
3-867
Application of the Rule. — Required the weight of a cop-
per pipe, whose interior diameter is 2^ inches, its length
20 feet, and the metal ^ of an inch in thickness.
2.25 + -I25 = 2-375 X 1-52 X 20 = 72.2 Ibs.
Weight of a Square Foot of Sheet- Iron, Copper, and Brass,
as per Birmingham Wire Gauge.
7Jo. of
Gauge.
Iron.
Copper
Brass.
No. of
Gauge.
Iron.
Galv.
Iron.
Copper
Brass.
t
12.5
14.5
13-75
16
2.62
3-
2.9
2-75
2
12.
13-9
13.2
17
2.20
2.69
2.52
2.4
3
II.
12.75
I2.I
18
1.92
2-31
2-15
2.04
4
10.5
u.6
II.
19
•75
2.07
1.97
1.87
5
9-
10. 1
9.6l
20
•54
i-75
1.78
1.69
6
8-34
9-4
8-93
21
•4
1.62
i-54
7
7-5
8-7
8.25
22
•25
1.32
MS
i-37
8
9
6.86
6.29
7-9
7-2
6^86
23
24
•13
.02
1.19
i. 06
i!i6
1.23
i.i
10
5.62
6-5
6.18
25
•9
i.
1.04
•99
ii
5-
5-8
5-5
26
.8
.96
•92
.88*
12
4-5
5.08
4.81
27
•75
.88
•83
•79
13
4-
4-34
4.12
28
•65
•75
•74
•7
3-23
3-6
3-43
29
-58
.69
.64
.61
15
2-97
3-27
3-i
172 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
GAS PIPES.
Table of the Diameter and Length of Gas Pipes to Trans-
mit Given Quantities of Gas to Branch Pipes and
Burners.
If
3 tuo
-°1
|3
"8
•5 &
r
Diameter of
pipe.
o .
11 -
**
|l
*o
JS <u
M.S-
r
Diameter of
pipe. !
per hour.
50
250
500
700
1000
1500
2OOO
feet.
IOO
200
600
IOOO
IOOO
IOOO
IOOO
inches.
0.40
1. 00
1.97
2.65
3.16
3-87
4-47
per hour.
2000
2000
2000
6000
6000
8000
8000
feet.
2OOO
400O
60OO
IOOO
2OOO
IOOO
2OOO
inches,
5-32
6-33
7.00
7-75
9.21
8.95
16.65
These dimensions are applicable to the mains which
conduct the gas to the places where it is to be used. If
they send off branches for burners, the diameter may be
reduced or the length may be greater. For examole, if a
pipe of 5.32 inches, which transmits 2000 cubic feet
through a length of 2000 feet gives off, in this space, Tooo
cubic feet of gas, then the same diameter can continue to
transmit the gas through a length of 2450 feet.
SERVICES FOR LAMPS.
2 Lamps 40 feet from Main require pipt ^ inch Bore.
6 « 50 « « « « « # «
IO " IOO " " " " " ^ " "
15 " 130 " " " " " 1 " "
20 " 150 " " " " " '*4 '' "
25 " 180 " •• " " " I*/? f "
30 " 200 •' •• " " " \yt » ••
WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES.
173
Weight of a Superficial Foot of Plates of Different Metals
in Pounds.
ll
c
*
Thickness.
ll
g
1
1
1
a
H
«
m
3
J
N
JL
2.5
2.7
2.9
3-7
2-3
.0625 in. = 1 6 Bir-
y&
5-5
5-8
7-4
4-7
.1250 " = ii ming-
f
7-5
IO.O
8.2
II.O
8.7
n.6
ii. i
14.8
7.0
9-4
.1875 " = 7 ham
.2500 " =• 4 wire
12.5
13-7
14-5
18.5
ii. 7
.3125 " = i gauge
N
15-
16.4
17.2
22.2
14.0
•375°
1
17-5
2O.O
192
21.9
20.O
22.9
25-9
29-5
16.4
18.7
•4375
.5000
22.5
24.6
25-7
33-2
21. 1
•5625
II
25.0
274
28.6
36.9
23-4
.6250
ii
27-5
30.1
31-4
40.6
25-7
.6875
3^
30.0
32-9
34-3
44-3
28.1
.7500
i
32-5
35-6
37-2
48.0
30.4
.8125
35-o
38.3
40.0
5'-7
32-8
.8750
il
37-5
41.2
42.9
55-4
•9375
i 40.0
43-9
45-8
59-i
37-5
l.OOOO
Recapitulation of Weights of Various Substances.
Names.
I*
3s
Cubic inch
in It*.
Cast iron
ACQ CC
2607
Wrought iron
48661;
2816
Steel
4.80 8
2874
ccc
32118
Lead
708 8*
Brass
Tin
26?
White pine ....
Salt water (sea)
64. -?
»w
Air
02.5
.03010
Steam
03680
174 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Cast iron expands rssVire of its length for one degree Oi
heat ; greatest change in the shade, in this climate, xtVo of
its length ; exposed to the sun's rays, icW ; shrinks in
cooling from ^ to ?V of its length ; is crushed by a force
of 93.000 Ibs. upon a square inch ; will bear, without per-
manent alterations, 15,300 Ibs. upon a square inch, and an
extension of TsW of its length. Weight of modulus of
elasticity for a base of an inch square, 18,400,000 Ibs. ;
height of modulus of elasticity, 5,750,000 feet.
Wrought iron expands TreW of its length for one degree
of heat ; will bear on a square inch, without permanent
alterations, 17,800 Ibs., and an extension in length of
TTTTC ; cohesive force is diminished y^W by an increase of
one degree of heat. Weight of modulus of elasticity for a
base of an inch square, 24,920,00^ Ibs. ; height of modulus
of elasticity, 7,550,000 feet.
Table Showing the Figures by which *hf. Weight of the Pat-
tern has to be Multiplied to Obtau: the V/eipht of the
Casting (According to Karmarsch).
Material of the
pattern.
Material of the casting.
Cast iron.
$
1
J-3
Bronze.
a
N
Bell or
gun
metal.
17.1
10.9
"•9
16.3
12.4
12.9
15-5
14.2
I.
a
b
Pine
14.
9-
9-7
13-4
10.2
10.6
12.8
11.7
0.84
U-5
10.9
ii. i
13 o
13-5
135
0.95
15.8
IO.I
10.9
15.1
"•5
11.9
14-3
13.2
o-95
16.7
10.4
11.4
15-7
11.9
12-3
14.9
13-7
o-99
16.3
10.3
"•3
15-5
n.8
12.2
147
13-5
0.98
13-5
8.6
9-4
12.9
9.8
10.2
12.2
II. 2
0.81
Oak..
Beech
Bass
Pear
Birch
Alder
Mahogany
Brass
WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES.
Table Continued.
175
Material of the
pattern.
Material of the casting.
Cast iron.
H
i %
H-2
g
1
pq
i
N
Bell or
gun
metal.
•
b
Zinc
Tin (with V, to
Xlead)..3...
Lead
I.
0.89
0.64
0.97
I. II
0.79
I-I3
0.72
1.09
1.17
1.03
o-74
i.i3
1.16
0.03
0.74
1. 12
0.96
0.85
0.61
o-93
1.22
1. 12
0.78
.1.18
Cast iron
If the cubic content
T • 1
Linear —
of the pattern = i,
that of the casting is
i
Cast iron
fa = o 0104
|i = 0.9688
Cast steel . .
Malleable casting
T'J — ° OI39
A = 0.0208
| = 0.9584
4 = 0.9376
Brass and tombac 1 ^ =0.0154
\ = 0-9545
Gun metal
T|T = 0.0075
3 — 0.9776
Bell metal j ^ =0.0159
\ = 0-9545
Zinc
B1T — 0.0161
£ = 0.9524
Tin
-j4~g- — 0.0078
1 = O.Q766
Lead
3*2 ~ O.OI09
If = 0.9678
The weight of larger castings can be approximately
determined by the formula G = a- - M, when s in-
dicates the specific gravity of the pattern, S that of the
casting, M the absolute weight of the pattern, and a the
proportion of shrinkage (see the above table).
Shrinkage of Castings. — In making castings of deter-
mined size the shrinkage of the metals in passing from the
melted into the solid and cold state must be taken into
consideration. The table given above shows the shrinkage
176 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
of the metals and the proportions of volumes between the
pattern and casting.
By a is expressed the proportion of shrinkage, /'. e., the
quotient from the volume of the model = i and the bodily
shrinkage of the cast metal. The areas and bodily shrink-
age are obtained by multiplying the separate values of-^-
by 2 or 3, as the case may be.
Speed of Saws Running 10,000 Feet per Minute on the
Rim.
72 inches 530 revolutions per minute.
68 " 560
64 " 600 " " "
60 " 640 " " "
56 " 7oo
52 " 75°
48 " 815 « « «
44 " 890 " «
40 " 980 " " "
36 " 1080 " " "
32 " 1225
28 " 1400 " " "
24 " 1630 " " "
20 " 1960 " " "
16 " 2450 " " "
12 " 3260 " " "
10 " 3920 " " "
8 " 4600 " " "
Rules for Calculating Speeds, etc.
Problem i. — The diameter of driving and driven pulleys
and the speed of driver being given, find the speed of
driven.
Rule. — Multiply the diameter of driver by its number of
revolutions and divide the product by the diameter of the
driven ; the quotient will be the number of revolutions of
driven.
SPEED OF SAWS. 177
Problem 2. — The diameter and revolutions of driver and
the revolutions being given, to find the diameter of the
driven.
Rule. — Multiply the revolutions of driven by its diam-
eter and divide the product by the revolutions of the
driver ; the quotient will be the diameter of driven.
PRACTICAL RECEIPTS.
JAPANNING AND VARNISHING.
JAPANNING is the art of covering bodies by grcnds of
opaque colors in varnish, which may be afterwards dec-
orated by printing or gilding, or left in a plain state. It is
also to be looked upon in another sense, as that of orna-
menting coaches, snuff-boxes, screens, etc. All surfaces to
be japanned must be perfectly clean, and leather should be
stretched on frames. Paper should be stiff for japanning.
The French prime all their japanned articles, the Eng-
lish do not. This priming is generally of common size.
Those articles, that are primed thus, never endure as well
as those that receive the japan coating on the first opera-
'tion, and thus it is that those articles of japan work that
are primed with size, when they are used for some time,
crack, and the coats of japan fly off in flakes.
A solution of strong isinglass size and honey, or sugar
candy, makes a good japan varnish to cover water colors
on gold grounds.
A pure white priming for japanning, for the cheap
method, is made with parchment size, and one-third of
isinglass, laid on very thin and smooth. It is the better
for three coats, and when the last coat is dry, it is pre-
pared to receive the painting or figures. Previous to the
last coat, however, the work should be smoothly polished.
When wood or leather is to be japanned, and no priming
used, the best plan is to lay on two or three coats of varnish
made of seed-lac and resin, two ounces each, dissolved in
alcohol and strained through a cloth. This varnish should
be put on in a warm place, and the work to be varnished
178
JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 179
should, if possible, be warm also, and all dampness should
be avoided, to prevent the varnish from being chilled.
When the work is prepared with the above composition?
and dry, it is fit for the proper japan to be laid on. If the
ground is not to be white the most suitable varnish now to be
used is made of shellac, as it is the best vehicle for all colors.
This is made in the following proportions : The best shel-
lac, five ounces, made into powder, steeped in a quart of al-
cohol, and kept at a gentle heat for two or three days and
shaken frequently, after which the solution must be filtered
through a flannel bag, and kept in a well-corked bottle for
use. This varnish for hard japanning on copper or tin will
stand for ever, unless fire or hammer be used to burn or
beat it off.
The color to be used with shellac varnish may be of any
pigments whatever to give the desired shade, as this varnish
will mix with any color.
White Japan Ground. — To form a hard, perfectly white
ground is no easy matter, as the substances which are
generally used to make the japan hard, have a tendency,
by a number of coats, to look or become dull in brightness.
One white ground is made by the following composition :
White flake or lead washed over and ground up with a
sixth of its weight of starch, then dried and mixed with the
finest gum, ground up in the proportion of one ounce gum to
half an ounce of rectified turpentine, mixed and ground thor-
oughly together. This is to be finely laid on the article to
be japanned, dried, and then varnished with five or six
coats of the following : Two ounces of the whitest seed-lac
to three ounces of gumanime reduced to a fine powder and
dissolved in a quart of alcohol. This lac must be carefully
picked. For a softer varnish than this, a little turpentine
should be added, and less of the gum. A very good varnish
and not brittle, may be made by dissolving gum anime in
nut oil, boiling it gently as the gum is added, and giving
180 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
the oil as much gum as it will take up. The ground of
white varnish may of itself be made of this varnish, by
giving two or three coats of it, but when used it should be
diluted with pure turpentine. Although this varnish is not
brittle it is liable to be indented with brush-strokes, and it
will not bear to be polished, but if well laid on it will not
need polishing afterwards. It also takes some time to dry.
Heat applied to all oils, however, darkens their color, and
oil varnishes for white grow very yellow if not exposed to a
full clear light.
Gum Copal. — Copal varnish is one of the very finest
varnishes for japanning purposes. It can be dissolved by
linseed oil, rendered dry by adding some quicklime at a
heat somewhat less than will boil or decompose the oil.
This solution, with the addition of a little turpentine,
forms a very transparent varnish, which, when properly
applied and slowly dried is very hard and durable. This
varnish is applied to snuff boxes, tea trays and other uten-
sils. It also preserves paintings and renders their sur-
faces capable of reflecting light more uniformly.
If powdered copal be mixed in a mortar with camphor,
it softens and becomes a coherent mass, and if camphor be
added to alcohol it becomes an excellent solvent of copal
by adding the latter, ground well, and employing a tolerable
degree of heat, using a well-corked vessel, with a long neck
to allow of expansion. The vessel must only be about one-
fourth filled with the mixture. Copal can also be incor-
porated with turpentine, with one part of powdered copal
to twelve parts of pure turpentine, subjected to the heat of
a sand-bath for several days in a long-necked matrass, shak-
ing it frequently.
Copal is a good varnish for metals, such as tin; the
varnish must be dried in an oven, each coat, and it can be
colored with some substances, but alcohol varnish will mix
with any coloring matter. For white japans or varnishes,
JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 181
we have already shown that fine chalk or white lead is
used as a basis, and the varnishes coated over it.
To japan or varnish white leather, so that it may be
elastic, is altogether a different work from varnishing or
japanning wood or metal, or papier-mache.
For white leather oil is the principal ingredient, as it is
well known that chalk is extensively used to give white
leather its pure color, or speaking more philosophically, its
fair colorless whiteness. White leather having already the
basis of white varnish, it should get a light coat of the pure
varnish, before mentioned, and be dried well in the oven,
or a coat of the oil copal will answer very well. This being
well dried, boiled nut oil carefully laid on and successively
dried, will make a most beautiful white varnish for leather,
not liable to crack. This quality takes a long time to dry,
and of course is more expensive. Coarse varnish may be
made of boiled linseed oil, to which is added gradually
the acetate of lead as a drier. This addition must be
made very cautiously, as the oil will be very apt to foam
over.
A better and more safe drying mixture than the mere
acetate of lead, is made by dissolving the acetate of lead in
a small quantity of water, neutralizing the acid with the addi-
tion of pipe clay, evaporating the sediment to perfect dry-
ness, and feeding the oil while gently boiling, gradually to it.
These varnishes or japans, as far as described, have only
reference to white grounds.
There is some nice work to be observed, and there is
much in applying the varnishes at the right time, knowing
by the eye the proper moment when the mixture is perfect,
or when to add any ingredients. These things require
practice.
Black Grounds. — Black grounds for japans may be made
by mixing ivory black with shellac varnish ; or for coarse
work, lamp black and the top coating of common seed-lac
182. TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
varnish. A common black japan may be made by painting
a piece of work with drying oil (oil mixed with lead), and
putting the work into a stove, not too hot, but of such a
degree, gradually raising the heat and keeping it up for a
long time, so as not to burn the oil and make it blister.
This process makes very fair japan and requires no pol-
ishing.
Black Japan. — Asphaltum 50 Ibs., dark gum-anime 8
Ibs., fuse; add linseed oil 12 gallons, boil, add dark gum
amber 10 Ibs., previously fused and boiled with linseed oil
2 gallons, add the driers; put the work into a stove as
above. Used for wood or metals.
Brunswick Black. — i. Asphaltum 45 Ibs., drying oil 6
gallons, litharge 6 Ibs., boil as last, and thin with 25
gallons of oil of turpentine. Used for ironwork, etc.
2. Black pitch and gas tar asphaltum, of each 25 Ibs., boil
gently for 5 hours, then add linseed oil 8 gallons, litharge
and red lead, of each 10 Ibs., boil as before, and thin with
oil of turpentine 20 gallons. Inferior to the last, but
cheaper.
Blue Japan Grounds. — Blue japan grounds may be
formed of bright Prussian blue. The color may be mixed
with shellac varnish, and brought to a polishing state by 5
or 6 coats of varnish of seed-lac. The varnish, however,
is apt to give a greenish tinge to the blue, as the varnish
has a yellowish tinge, and blue and yellow form a green.
Whenever a light blue is desired, the purest varnish must
always be used.
Scarlet Japan. — Ground vermilion may be used for this,
but being so glaring it is not beautiful unless covered over
with rose-pink or lake, which have a good effect when thus
used. For a very bright crimson ground, safflower or In-
dian lake should be used, always dissolved in the alcohol
of which the varnish is made. In place of this lake,
carmine may be used, as it is more common. The top coat
JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 183
of varnish must always be of the white seed-lac, which has
been before described, and as many coats given as may be
thought proper ; it is easy to judge of this.
Yellow Grounds. — If turmeric be dissolved in spirit of
wine and strained through a cloth, and then mixed with
pure seed-lac varnish, it makes a good yellow japan. Saf-
fron will answer for the same purpose in the same way, but
the brightest yellow ground is made by a primary coat of
pure chrome yellow, and coated successively with the var-
nish. Dutch pink is used for a kind of cheap yellow japan
ground. If a little dragon's blood be added to the varnish
for yellow japan, a most beautiful and rich salmon-colored
varnish is the result, and by these two mixtures all the
shades of flesh-colored japans are produced.
Green Japan Grounds. — A good green may be made by
mixing Prussian blue along with the chromate of lead, or
with turmeric, or orpimerit (sulphuret of arsenic), or ochre,
only the two should be ground together and dissolved in
alcohol, and applied as a ground, then coated with four or
five coats of shellac varnish, in the manner already de-
scribed. A very bright green is made by laying on a
ground of Dutch metal, or gold leaf, and then coating
it over with distilled verdigris dissolved in alcohol, then
the varnishes on the top. This is a splendid green, bril-
liant and glowing.
Orange-colored Grounds. — Orange grounds may be made
of yellow mixed with vermilion or carmine, just as a
bright or rather inferior color is wanted. The yellow
should always be in quantity to make a good full color,
and the red added in proportion to the depth of shade.
If there is not a good full body of yellow, the color will
look watery, or bare, as it is technically termed.
Purple^Japan Grounds. — These are made by a mixture of
lake and Prussian blue or carmine, or for an inferior color
vermilion, and treated as the foregoing. When the ground
184 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
is laid on and perfectly dried, a thin coat of pure boiled
nut oil then laid on and also dried, is a good method
for a japan not liable to crack. But a better plan is to use
this oil in the varnish, which should contain considerable
pure turpentine, giving the first coat after the ground is
laid on. In every case where oil is used for any purpose
for varnish, it is all the better if turpentine is mixed with
it. Turpentine enables oils to mix with either alcohol or
water. Alkalies have this property also.
Black Japan. — i. Asphaltum, 3 oz. ; boiled oil, 4 quarts;
burnt umber, 8 oz. Mix by heat, and when cooling thin
with turpentine. 2. Amber, 12 oz. ; asphaltum, 2 oz. ;
fuse by heat, add boiled oil, half a pint, resin 2 oz. When
cooling, add 16 oz. oil of turpentine. Both are used to
varnish metals.
Japan Black for Leather. — i. Burnt umber, 4 oz. ; true
asphaltum, 2 oz. ; boiled oil, 2 quarts. Dissolve the as-
phaltum by heat in a little of the oil, add the burnt umber
ground in oil, and the remainder of the oil, mix, cool and
thin with turpentine; flexible. 2. Shellac, ipart; wood
naphtha, 4 parts ; dissolve, and color with lampblack ; in-
flexible.
Transparent Japan. — Oil of turpentine, 4 oz. ; oil of
lavender, 3 oz. ; camphor, ^ drachm ; copal, i oz ; dis-
solve. Used to japan tin, but quick copal varnish is mostly
used instead.
Japanners* Copal Varnish. — Pale African copal, 7 Ibs. ;
fuse ; add clarified linseed oil, y2 gallon ; boil for 5 min-
utes ; remove it into the open air ; add boiling oil of tur-
pentine, 3 gallons ; mix well, strain it into the can, and
cover it up immediately. Used to varnish furniture, and
by japanners, coachmakers, etc. Dries in 15 minutes, and
may be polished as soon as hard.
Tortoise-shell Japan. — This varnish is prepared by taking
of good linseed oil i gallon, and of umber y2 lb., and
JAPANNING. 18&
boiling them together until the oil becomes very brown
and thick, when they are strained through a cloth and
boiled again until the composition is about the consistence
of pitch, when it is fit for use. Having prepared this var-
nish, clean well the copper or iron plate, or vessel, that is
to be varnished (japanned), and then lay vermilion, mixed
with shellac varnish, or with drying oil diluted with tur-
pentine, very thinly on the places intended to imitate the
clear parts of the tortoise shell. When the vermilion is
dry, brush over the whole with the above umber varnish,
diluted to a due consistence, with turpentine, and when it
is set and firm, it must be put into a stove and undergo a
strong heat for a long time — even two weeks will not hurt
it. This is the ground for those beautiful snuff-boxes and
tea trays which are so much admired, and those grounds
can be decorated with all kinds of paintings that fancy
may suggest, and the work is all the better to be finished
in an annealing oven.
Painting Japan Work. — The colors to be painted are
tempered, generally in oil, which should have at least one-
fourth of its weight of gum sandarach, or mastic, dissolved
in it, and it should be well diluted with turpentine, that
the colors may be laid on thin and evenly. In some in-
stances it does well to put on water colors or grounds of
gold, which a skilful hand can do and manage so as t&
make the work appear as if it were embossed. These water
colors are best prepared by means of isinglass size, mixed
with honey or sugar candy. These colors, when laid on,
must receive a number of upper coats of the varnish we
have described before.
Japanning old Tea Trays. — First clean them thoroughly
with soap and water and a little rotten stone ; then dry
them by wiping and exposure at the fire. Now, get some
good copal varnish, mix it with some bronze powder, and
apply with a brush to the denuded parts ; after which set
186 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
the tea tray in an oven at a heat of ^12° or 300°, until th&
varnish is dry. Two coats will make it equal to new.
Japan Finishing. — The finishing part of japanning lies
in laying on and polishing the outer coats of varnish, which
is necessary in all painted or simply ground-colored japan
work. When brightness and clearness are wanted, the
white kind of varnish is necessary, for seed-lac varnish,
which is the hardest and most tenacious, imparts a yellow
tinge. A mixed varnish, we believe, is the best for this
purpose, that is, for combining hardness and purity. Take
then 3 oz. of seed-lac, picked very carefully from all sticks
and dirt, washing it well with cold water, stirring it up,
pouring it off, and continuing the process until the water
runs off perfectly pure. Dry it and then reduce it to
powder, and put it with a pint of alcohol into a bottle, of
which it must occupy only two-thirds of the space. This
mixture must be shaken well together and the bottle kept at
a gentle heat (being corked) until the lac is dissolved.
When this is the case, the clear must be poured off, and the
remainder strained through a cloth, and all the clear,
strained and poured, must be kept in a well-stoppered bottle.
The manner of using this seed-lac varnish is the same as
that before described, and a fine polishing varnish is made
by mixing this with pure white varnish. The pieces of
work to be varnished for finishing should be placed near a
stove, or in a warm, dry room, and one coat should be per-
fectly dry before the other is applied. The varnish is
applied by proper brushes, beginning at the middle, passing
the stroke to one end and with the other stroke from the
middle to the other end. Great skill is necessary in laying
on these coats of varnish. If possible the same place should
never be crossed or twice passed over in giving one coat.
When one coat is dry another must be laid over it, and so
on successively for a number of coats, so that the coating
shall be sufficiently thick to bear the polishing, without lay-
VARNISHES. 187
ing bare the surface of the painting or ground work beneath.
When a sufficient number of coats are thus laid on, the work
is fat to be polished, which, in common cases, is done with a
rag dipped in finely powdered rotten stone ; but towards the
end of the rubbing a little oil should be used along with the
powder, and when the work appears fine and glossy a little
oil must be used alone to clean off the powder and give
the work a still brighter hue. In very fine work, French
whiting should be used, which should be washed in water
to remove any sand that might be in it. Pumice stone
ground to a very fine powder is used for the first part of
the polishing, and the finishing is done with whiting. It is
always best to dry the varnish of all japan work by heat.
For wood work, heat must be sparingly used, but for metals
the varnish should be dried in an oven, also for papier-
mache and leather. The metal will stand the greatest heat,
and care must be taken not to darken by too high a tem-
perature. When gold size is used in gilding for japan
work, where it is desired not to have the gold shine, or ap-
pear burnished, the gold size should be used with a little of
the spirits of turpentine and a little oil, but when a consid-
erable degree of lustre is wanted without burnishing and
the preparation necessary for it, a little of the size along
with oil alone should be used.
VARNISHES— MISCELLANEOUS.
Different substances are employed for making varnish,
the object being to produce a liquid easily applied to the
surface of cloth, paper or metal, which, when dry, will pro-
tect it with a fine film. Gums and resins are the substances
employed for making varnishes ; they are dissolved either
in turpentine, alcohol, or oil, in a close stone-ware, glass or
metal vessel, exposed to a low heat, as the case may require,
or cold. The alcohol or turpentine dissolves the gum or
resin, and holds them in solution, and after the application
188 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
of the varnish, this mixture being mechanical, the moisture
of the liquid evaporates, and the gum adheres to the article
to which it is applied.
The choice of linseed oil is of peculiar consequence to
the varnish maker. Oil from fine full-grown ripe seed, when
viewed in a vial, will appear limpid, pale, and brilliant; it
is mellow and sweet to the taste, has very little smell, is
specifically lighter than impure oil, and, when clarified,
dries quickly and firmly, and does not materially change
the color of the varnish when made, but appears limpid and
brilliant.
The following are tne chief Resins employed in the manu-
facture of Varnishes.
Amber. — This resin is most distinguished for durabiliiy.
It is usually of some shade of yellow, transparent, hard and
moderately tough. Heated in air, it fuses at about 549°;
it burns with a clear flame, emitting a pleasant odor.
Anime. — This is imported from the East Indies. The
large, transparent, pale-yellow pieces, with vitreous fracture,
are best suited for varnish. Inferior qualities are employed
for manufacturing gold-size or japan-black. Although
superior to amber in its capacity for drying, and equal in
hardness, varnish made from anime deepens in color on
exposure to air, and is very liable to crack. It is, however,
much used for mixing with copal varnish.
Benzoin. — This is a gum resin, but little used in var-
nishes on account of its costliness.
Colophony. — This resin is synonymous with arcanson and
rosin. When the resinous juice of Pinus sylvestris and
other varieties is distilled, colophony remains in the retort.
Its dark color is due to the action of the fire. Dissolved
in linseed oil, or in turpentine by the aid of heat, colo-
phony forms a brilliant, hard, but brittle varnish.
Copal. — This is a gum resin of immense importance to
the varnish maker. It consists of several minor resins of
VARNISHES. 189
different degrees of solubility. In durability, it is only
second to amber. When made into varnish, the better
sorts become lighter in color by exposure to air.
Copal is generally imported in large lumps about the size
of potatoes. The clearest and palest are selected for what
is called body gum ; the second best forms carriage gum ;
whilst the residue, freed from the many impurities with
which it is associated, constitutes the worst quality, fitted
only for japan black or gold size.
In alcohol, copal is but slightly soluble ; but it is said to
become more so by reducing it to a fine powder and ex-
posing it to atmospheric influences for twelve months.
Boiling alcohol or spirit of turpentine, when poured upon
fused copal, accomplishes its complete solution, provided
the solvent be not added in too large proportions at a time.
The addition of camphor also promotes the solubility of
copal ; so likewise does oil of rosemary.
Dammar. — This is a tasteless, inodorous, whitish resin,
easily soluble in oils. It is not so hard as mastic, with
which it forms a good admixture.
Elemt. — This is a resin of a yellow color, semi-transpa-
rent and of faint fragrance. Of the two resins which it
contains, one is crystallizable and soluble in cold alcohol.
Lac. — This constitutes the basis of spirit varnish. The
resin is soluble in strong alcohol aided by heat. Its solu-
tion in ammonia may be used as a varnish, when the articles
coated with it are not to be exposed more than an hour or
two at a time to water.
Mastic. — This is a soft resin of considerable lustre. The
two sorts in commerce are, in tears and the common mastic ;
the former is the purer of the two. It consists of two
resins, one of which is soluble in dilute alcohol. With oil
of turpentine it forms a very pale varnish of great lustre,
wnich flows readily and works easily. Moreover, it can
190 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
be readily removed by friction with the hand ; hence its
use for delicate work of every description.
Sandarach. — This is a pale, odorous resin, less hard than
lac, with which it is often associated as a spirit varnish.
It consists of three resins differing as to solubility in alco-
hol, ether and turpentine. It forms a good pale varnish
for light-colored woods ; when required to be polished,
Venice turpentine is added to give it body.
Of the solvents of these various resins little need be said.
In the manufacture of varnishes, great care, as well as
cleanliness, is required. The resins should be washed in
hot water, to free them from particles of dust and dirt ;
they should be dried and assorted according to their color,
reserving the lightest shades for the best kinds of varnish.
The linseed oil should be as pale colored and as well
clarified as possible. New oil always contains mucilage,
and more or less of foreign matters ; as these prevent the
regular absorption of oxygen, the oil requires preliminary
treatment. The common plan is to boil it with litharge ;
but such oil varnish is inferior to that prepared with sul-
phate of lead.
The best method is to rub up linseed oil with dry sul-
phate of lead, in sufficient quantity to form a milky mixture.
After a week's exposure to the light, and frequent shaking,
the mucus deposits with the sulphate of lead, and leaves
the oil perfectly clear. The precipitated slime forms a
compact membrane over the lead, hardening to such an
extent that the clarified oil may be readily poured off.
Turpentine. — This is of very extensive use. The older
it is, the more ozonized, the better it is. Turpentine var-
nishes dry much more readily than oil varnishes, are of a
lighter color, more flexible and cheap. They are, however,
neither so tough nor so durable.
Alcohol. — This is employed as the solvent of'sandaracb
and of lac. The stronger, c&teris paribus, the better.
VARNISHES. 191
Naphtha and Methylated Spirit of Wine. — These are
used for the cheaper varnishes. Their smell is disagreeable.
The former is, however, a better solvent of resins than
alcohol.
Spirit Varnishes. — These varnishes may be readily
colored — red, by dragon's blood ; yellow, by gamboge. If
a colored varnish is required, no account need be
taken of the color of the resins. Lac varnish may be
bleached by Mr. Lemming's process : — Dissolve five ounces
of shellac in a quart of spirit of wine ; boil for a few min-
utes with ten ounces of well-burnt and recently-heated
animal charcoal, when a small quantity of the solution
should be drawn off and filtered: if not colorless, a little
more charcoal should be added. When all tinge is re-
moved, press the liquor through silk, as linen absorbs more
varnish ; and afterwards filter it through fine blotting-paper.
Dr. Hare proceeds as follows: — Dissolve in an iron kettle
about one part of pearlash in about eight parts of water, add
one part of shell or seed-lac, and heat the whole to ebulli-
tion. When the lac is dissolved, cool the solution, and im-
pregnate it with chlorine gas till the lac is all precipitated.
The precipitate is white, but the color deepens by washing
and consolidation. Dissolved in alcohol, lac bleached by
this process yields a varnish which is as free from color as
any copal varnish.
One word in conclusion with reference to all spirit var-
nishes. A damp atmosphere is sufficient to occasion a
a milky deposit of resin, owing to the diluted spirit de-
positing a portion : in such case the varnish is said to be
chilled.
Essence Varnishes. — They do not differ essentially in their
manufacture from spirit varnishes. The polish produced by
them is more durable, although they take a longer time to
dry.
Oil Varnishes. — The most durable and lustrous of var-
192 TIN, SHEET IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
nishes are composed of a mixture of resin, oil, and spirit
of turpentine. The oils most frequently employed are lin-
seed and walnut ; the resins chiefly copal and amber.
The drying powder of the oil having been increased by
litharge, red lead, or by sulphate of lead, and a judicious
selection of copal having been made, it is necessary,
according to Booth, to bear in mind the following precau-
tions before proceeding to the manufacture of varnish : — i.
That oil varnish is not a solution, but an intimate mixture
of resin in boiled oil and spirit of turpentine. 2. That the
resin must be completely fused previous to the addition of
the boiled or prepared oil. 3. That the oil must be heated
from 250° to 300°. 4. That the spirit of turpentine must
be added gradually, and in a thin stream, while the mixture
of oil and resin is still hot. 5. That the varnish be made
in dry weather, otherwise moisture is absorbed, and its
transparency and drying quality impaired.
The heating vessel must be of copper, with a riveted and
not a soldered bottom. To promote the admixture of the
copal with the hot oil, the copal — carefully selected, and of
nearly uniform fusibility — is separately heated with contin-
uous stirring over a charcoal fire. Good management is
required to prevent the copal from burning or becoming
even high colored. When completely fused, the heated oil
should be gradually poured in with constant stirring. The
exact amount of oil required must be determined by experi-
ment. If a drop upon a plate, on cooling, assumes such a
consistency as to be penetrated "by the nail without crack-
ing, the mixture is complete ; but if it cracks, more oil
must be added.
The spirit of turpentine previously heated is added in a
thin stream to the former mixture, care being taken to keep
up the heat of all the parts.
Lacquer. — This is used for wood or brass work, and is
also a varnish. For brass, the proportions are half a pound
VARNISHES. m
of pale shellac to one gallon of spirit of wine. It is better
prepared without the aid of heat by simple and repeated
agitation. It should then be left to clear itself, and sepa-
rated from the thicker portions and from all impurities by
decantation. As it darkens on exposure to light, the
latter should be excluded. It need scarcely be said
that the color will also be modified by that of the lac em-
ployed.
/. Copal Varnishes. — i. Oil of turpentine one pint. Set
the bottle in a water bath, and add in small portions at a
time, three ounces of powdered copal that has been pre-
viously melted by a gentle heat, and dropped into water ;
in a few days decant the clear. Dries slowly, but is very
pale and durable. Used for pictures, &c. 2. Pale hard
copal two pounds ; fuse, add hot drying oil one pint, boil
as before directed, and thin with oil of turpentine three
pints, or as much as sufficient. Very pale. Dries hard in
12 to 24 hours. 3. Clearest and palest African copal
eight pounds ; fuse, add hot and pale drying oil two gal-
lons, boil till it strings strongly, cool a little, and thin with
hot rectified oil of turpentine three gallons, and immediately
strain into the store can. Very fine. Both the above are
used for pictures. 4. Coarsely-powdered copal and glass,
of each four ounces, alcohol of 90 per cent, one pint, cam-
phor one-half ounce ; heat it in a water-bath so that the
bubbles may be counted as they rise, observing frequently
to stir the mixture ; when cold decant the clear. Used
for pictures. 5. Copal melted and dropped into water
three ounces, gum sandarach six ounces, mastic and Scio
turpentine, of each two and one-half ounces, powdered
glass four ounces, alcohol of 85 per cent, one quart ; dis«
solve by a gentle heat. Used for metal, chairs, &c.
All copal varnishes are hard and durable, though less so
than those made of amber, but they have the advantage
over the latter of being paler. They are applied on coaches,
194 TIN. SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
pictures, polished metal, wood, and other objects requiring
good durable varnish.
If. Copal Varnish. — Hard copal, 300 parts ; drying lin-
seed or nut oil, from 1 25 to 250 parts ; oil of turpentine, 500.
These three substances are to be put into three separate ves-
sels ; the copal is to be fused by a somewhat sudden appli-
cation of heat; the drying oil is to be heated to a temper-
ature a little under ebullition, and is to be added, by small
portions at a time, to the melted copal. When this com-
bination is made, and the heat a little abated, the oil of
turpentine, likewise previously heated, is to be introduced
by degrees ; some of the volatile oil will be dissipated at
first, but more being added, the union will take place.
Great care must be taken to prevent the turpentine vapor
from catching fire, which might occasion serious accidents
to the operator. When the varnish is made and has cooled
down to about 130 degrees Fahr., it may be strained
through a filter, to separate the impurities and undissoived
copal. Almost all varnish makers think it indispensable to
combine the drying oil with the copal before adding
the oil of turpentine, but in this they are mistaken. Boil-
ing oil of turpentine combines very readily with fused
copal ; and, in some cases, it would probably be preferable
to commence the operation with it, adding it in successive
small quantities. Indeed, the whitest copal varnish can be
made orfly in this way ; for if the drying oil has been
heated to nearly its boiling point, it becomes colored, and
darkens the varnish.
This varnish improves in clearness by keeping. Its con-
sistence may be varied by varying the proportions of the
ingredients within moderate limits. Good varnish, applied
in summer, should become so dry in 24 hours that the dust
will not stick to it, and so hard as not to receive an impres-
sion from the fingers. To render it sufficiently dry and hard
VARNISHES. 195
for polishing, it must be subjected for several days to the
heat of a stove.
///. Copal Varnishes. — i. Melt in an iron pan at a slow
heat, copal gum powdered, 8 parts, and add balsam copaiva,
previously warmed, 2 parts. Then remove from the fire,
and add spirits of turpentine, also warmed beforehand, 10
parts, to give the necessary consistence. 2. Prepared gum
copal 10 parts, gum mastic 2 parts, finely powdered, are
mixed with white turpentine and boiled linseed oil, of each
1 part, at a slow heat, and with spirits of turpentine, 20
parts. 3. Prepared gum-copal 10 parts, white turpentine
2 parts ; dissolve tn spirits of turpentine.
Gum-copal is prepared or made more soluble in spirits
of turpentine, by melting the powdered crude gum, after-
wards again powdering, and allowing to stand for some
time loosely covered.
Cabinet Varnish. — Copal, fused, i4lbs. ; linseed oil, hot,
i gallon ; turpentine, hot, 3 gallons. Properly boiled,
such a varnish will dry in 10 minutes.
Table Varnish. — Dammar resin, i Ib. ; spirits of turpen-
tine, 2 Ibs. ; camphor, 200 grains. Digest the mixture for
24 hours. The decanted portion is fit for immediate use.
Common Table Varnish. — Oil of turpentine, i Ib. ; bees'
wax, 2 oz. ; colophony, i drachm.
Copal Varnish for Inside Work. — i. Pounded and oxi-
dized copal, 24 parts; spirit of turpentine, 40 parts;
camphor, i part. — 2. Flexible Copal Varnish. Copal in
powder, 16 parts; camphor, 2 parts; oil of lavender, 90
parts.
Dissolve the camphor in the oil, heat the latter, and stir
in the copal in successive portions antil complete solution
takes place. Thin with sufficient turpentine to make it of
proper consistence.
Best Body Copal Varnish for Coach Makers, etc. — This
is intended for the bodv parts of coaches and other similar
196 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
vehicles, intended for polishing. Fuse eight Ibs. of fine
African gum copal, and two gallons of clarified oil, boil- it
very slowly for four or five hours, until quite stringy, mix
with three gallons and a half of turpentine ; strain off and
pour it into a can. If this is too slow in drying, coach-
makers, painters and varnish-makers have introduced to
two pots of the preceding varnish, one made as follows :
Eight Ibs. of fine pale gum-anime, two gallons of clarified
oil and three and a half gallons of turpentine. To be
boiled four hours.
Copal Polish. — Digest or shake finely powdered gum
copal four parts, and gum camphor one part, with ether to
form a semi-fluid mass, and then digest with a sufficient
quantity of alcohol.
White Spirit Varnish. — Sandarach, 250 parts ; mastic, in
tears, 64; elemi resin, 32; turpentine, 64; alcohol of 85
per cent., 1000 parts, by measure. The turpentine is to
be added after the resins are dissolved. This is a brilliant
varnish, but not so hard as to bear polishing.
White Hard Spirit Varnishes. — i. Gum sandarach five
pounds, camphor one ounce, rectified spirit 65 over proof
two gallons, washed and dried coarsely-pounded glass two
pounds ; proceed as in making mastic varnish. When
strained add one quart of very pale turpentine varnish.
Very fine. 2. Picked mastic and coarsely-ground glass, of
each four ounces, sandarach and pale clear Venice turpen-
tine, of each three ounces, alcohol two pounds ; as last.
3. Gum sandarach one pound, clear Strasburg turpentine
six ounces, rectified spirit (65 over proof) three pints; dis-
solve. 4. Mastic in tears two ounces, sandarach eight
ounces, gum elemi one ounce, Strasburg or Scio turpentine
(genuine) four ounces, rectified spirit (65 over proof) one
quart. Used on metals, etc. Polishes well.
White Varnish. — i. Tender copal seven and one-half
ounces, camphor one ounce, alcohol of 95 per cent, one
VARNISHES. 197
quart ; dissolve ; then add mastic two ounces, Venice tur-
pentine one ounce ; dissolve and strain. Very white, dry-
ing and capable of being polished when hard. Used for
toys. 2. Sandarach eight ounces, mastic two ounces,
Canada balsam four ounces, alcohol one quart. Used on
paper, wood or linen.
Soft Brilliant Varnish. — Sandarach six ounces, elemi
(genuine) four ounces, anime one ounce, camphor one-half
ounce, rectified spirit one quart ; as before.
The above spirit varnishes are chiefly applied to objects
of the toilet, work boxes, card cases, etc., but are also
suitable for other articles, whether of paper, wood, linen,
or metal, that require a brilliant and quick-drying varnish.
They mostly dry almost as soon as applied, and are usually
hard enough to polish in 24 hours. Spirit varnishes are
less durable and more liable to crack than oil varnishes.
Brown, hard Spirit Varnishes. — i. Sandarach four ounces,
pale seed lac two ounces, elemi (true) one ounce, alcohol
one quart; digest with agitation till dissolved, then add
Venice turpentine two ounces. 2. Gum sandarach three
pounds, shellac two pounds, rectified spirit (65 over proof),
two gallons ; dissolve ; add turpentine varnish one quart ;
agitate well and strain. Very fine. 3. Seed lac and yel-
low resin, of each one and one-half pounds, rectified spirit
two gallons.
To Prepare a Varnish for Coating Metals. — Digest one
part of bruised copal in two parts of absolute alcohol ; but
as this varnish dries too quickly it is preferable to take one
part of copal, one part of oil of rosemary, and two or
three parts of absolute alcohol. This gives a clear varnish
as limpid as water. It should be applied hot, and when
dry it will be found hard and durable.
To Varnish Articles of Iron and Steel. — Dissolve ten
parts of clear grains of mastic, five parts of camphor, fif-
teen parts of sandarach, and five of elemi, in a sufficient
198 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
quantity of alcohol, and apply this varnish without heat.
The articles will not only be preserved from rust, but the
varnish will retain its transparency and the metallic bril-
liancy of the articles will not be obscured.
Varnish for Iron Work. — Dissolve, in about two pounds
of tar oil, half a pound of asphaltum, and a like quantity
of pounded resin, mix hot in an iron kettle, care being
taken to prevent any contact with the flame. When cold,
the varnish is ready for use. This varnish is for out-door
wood and iron work, not for japanning leather or cloth.
Black Varnish for Iron Work. — Asphaltum forty-eight
pounds ; fuse ; add boiled oil ten gallons, red lead and
litharge, of each seven pounds, dried and powdered white
copperas three pounds ; boil for two hours ; then add dark
gum amber (fused) eight pounds, hot linseed oil two gal-
lons-; boil for two hours longer, or till a little of the mass,
when cooled, may be rolled into pills ; then withdraw the
heat, and afterwards thin down with oil of turpentine thirty
gallons. Used for the iron work of carriages and other
nice purposes.
Bronze Varnish for Statuary. — Cut best hard soap fifty
parts into fine shavings ; dissolve in boiling water two
parts, to which add the solution of blue vitriol fifteen parts,
in pure water sixty parts. Wash the copper-soap with water,
dry it at a very slow heat, and dissolve it in spirits of tur-
pentine.
Amber Varnishes. — i. Amber one pound, pale boiled
oil ten ounces, turpentine one pint. Render the amber,
placed in an iron pot, semi-liquid by heat ; then add the
oil, mix, remove it from the fire, and when cooled a little.
stir in the turpentine. 2. To the amber, melted as above,
add two ounces of shellac, and proceed as before.
This varnish is rather dark, but remarkably tough. The
first formula is the best. It is used for the same purposes as
eopal varnish, and forms an excellent article for covering
VARNISHES. 199
wood, or any other substance not of a white or pale color.
It dries well, and is very hard and durable.
Amber Varnish, Black, — Amber one pound, boiled oil
one-half pint, powdered asphaltum^ six ounces, oil of tur-
pentine one pint. Melt the amber, as before described,
then add the asphaltum, previously mixed with the cold
oil, and afterwards heated very hot ; mix well, remove the
vessel from the fire, and when cooled a little, add the tur-
pentine, also made warm.
Each of the above varnishes should be reduced to a
proper consistence with more turpentine if required. The
last formula produces the beautiful black varnish used by the
coachmakers. Some manufacturers omit the whole or part
of the asphaltum, and use the same quantity of clear black
rosin instead, in which case the color is brought up by
lampblack reduced to an impalpable powder, or previously
ground very fine with a little boiled oil. The varnish made
in this way lacks, however, that richness, brilliancy, and
depth of blackness imparted by asphaltum.
Amber Varnishes. — i. {Pale.} Amber pale and transpa-
rent six pounds ; fuse ; add hot clarified linseed oil two
gallons ; boil till it strings strongly, cool .a little and add
oil of turpentine four gallons. Pale as copal varnish ; soon
becomes very hard, and is the most durable of oil varnishes^
but requires time before it is fit for polishing. When
wanted to dry and harden more quickly, "drying" oil may
be substituted for linseed, or "dryers" maybe added during
the boiling. 2. Amber one pound ; melt, add Scio tur-
pentine one-half pound, transparent white resin two ounces,
hot linseed oil one pint, and afterwards oil of turpentine
as much as sufficient ; as above. Very tough. 3. {Hard.}
Melted amber four ounces, hot boiled oil one quart ; as
before. 4. (Pale.} Very pale and transparent amber four
ounces, clarified linseed oil and oil of turpentine, of each
one pint ; as before.
200 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
Amber varnish is suited for all purposes, where a very hard
and durable oil varnish is required. The paler kind is su-
perior to copal varnish, and is often mixed with the latter
to increase its hardness and durability.
Black Varnish. — Heat to boiling linseed oil, varnish ten
parts, with burnt amber two parts, and powdered asphaltum
one part, and when cooled, dilute to the required consist-
ence, with spirits of turpentine.
Varnish for certain parts of Carriages. — Sandarach 190
parts, pale shellac 95, resin 125, turpentine 190, alcohol
(at 85 per cent.) 1000 parts, by measure.
Coach Varnish. — Mix shellac sixteen parts, white turpen-
tine three parts, lampblack a sufficient quantity, and digest
with alcohol ninety parts, oil of lavender four parts.
Mahogany Varnish. — Sorted gum anime eight pounds,
clarified oil three gallons, litharge and powdered dried
sugar of lead, of each one-fourth pound ; boil till it strings
well, then cool a little, thin with oil of turpentine five and
one-half gallons, and strain.
Varnish for Cabinetmakers. — Pale shellac 750 parts, mas-
tic 64, alcohol (of 90 per cent.) 1000 parts by measure.
The solution is made in the cold, with the aid of frequent
stirring. It is always muddy, and is employed without
being filtered. With the same resins and proof spirit a
varnish is made for bookbinders, for applying to morocco
leather.
Cement Varnish for water-tight Luting. — White turpen-
tine fourteen parts, shellac eighteen parts, resin six parts,
digest with alcohol eighty parts.
The Varnish of Watin for Gilded Articles.— Gum lac
(in grains) 125 parts, gamboge 125, dragon's blood 125,
annotto 125, saffron 32. Each resin must be dissolved in
1000 parts (by measure) of alcohol of 90 per cent. ; two
separate tinctures must be made with the dragon's blood
and annotto, in 1000 parts of such alcohol ; and a proper
VARNISHES. 201
portion of each should be added to the varnish — according
to the shade of golden color wanted.
Cheap Oak Varnish. — Clear pale resin three and one-
half pounds, oil of turpentine one gallon ; dissolve. It may
be colored darker by adding a little fine lampblack.
Varnish for Woodwork. — Powdered gum sandarach eight
parts, gum mastic two parts, seed lac eight parts, and digest
in a warm place for some days with alcohol twenty-four
parts ; and finally, dilute with sufficient alcohol to the re-
quired consistence.
Dark Varnish for Light Woodwork. — Pound up and di-
gest shellac sixteen parts, gum sandarach thirty-two parts,
gum mastic (juniper) eight parts, gum elemi eight parts,
dragon's blood ^ four parts, annotto one part, with white
turpentine sixteen parts, and alcohol 256 ; dilute with
alcohol if required.
Varnish for Instruments. — Digest seed lac one part, with
alcohol seven parts, and filter.
Varnish for the Wood Toys of Spa. — Tender copal, 75
parts; mastic, 12.5; Venice turpentine, 6.5; alcohol (of
95 per cent.), 100 parts (by measure, water ounces, for ex-
ample, if the other parts be taken in ounces). The alcohol
must be first made to act upon the copal, with the aid of a
little oil of lavender or camphor, if thought fit ; and the
solution being passed through a linen cloth, the mastic
must be introduced. After it is dissolved, the Venice tur-
pentine, previously melted in a water bath, should be
added ; the lower the temperature at which these opera-
tions are carried on, the more beautiful will the varnish be.
This varnish ought to be very white, very drying, and ca-
pable of being smoothed with pumice stone and polished.
Varnishes for Furniture. — The simplest, and perhaps the
best, is the solution of shellac only ; but many add gums
and sandarach, mastic, copal, arabic, benzoin, etc., from
the idea that they contribute to the effect. Gum arabic is
202 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
certainly never required if the solvent be pure, because it
is insoluble in either rectified spirit or rectified wood naph-
tha, the menstrua employed in dissolving the gums. As
spirit is seldom used on account of its expense, most of the
following are mentioned as solutions in naphtha, but spirit
can be substituted when thought proper.
i. Shellac one and a half pounds, naphtha one gallon;
dissolve, and it is ready without filtering. 2. Shellac
twelve ounces, copal three ounces (or an equivalent of var<=
nish) ; dissolve in one gallon of naphtha. 3. Shellac one
and a half pounds, seed lac and sandarach each four ounces,
mastic two ounces, rectified spirit one gallon ; dissolve.
4. Shellac two pounds, benzoin four ounces, spirit one
gallon. 5. Shellac ten ounces, seed lac, . sandarach and
copal varnish, of each, six ounces ; benzoin three ounces,
naphtha one gallon.
To darken polish, benzoin and dragon's blood are used,
turmeric and other coloring matters are also added ; and
to make it lighter it is necessary to use bleached lac, though
some endeavor to give this effect by adding oxalic acid to
the ingredients ; however, it, like gum arabic, is insoluble
in rectified spirit or naphtha. For all ordinary purposes the
first formula is best and least troublesome, while the result
obtained is equal to any other.
To French Polish. — The wood must be placed level and sand-
papered until it is quite smooth, otherwise it will not polish.
Then provide a rubber of cloth, list or sponge ; wrap it in
a soft rag, so as to leave a handle at the back for your
hand ; shake the bottle against the rubber, and in the mid-
dle of the varnish on the rag place with your finger a littl?
raw linseed oil. Now commence rubbing, in small circular
strokes, and continue until the pores are filled, charging
the rubber with varnish and oil as required, until the whole
wood has had one coat. When dry repeat the .process once
or twice until the surface appears even and fine, between
VARNISHES. 203
each coat using fine sandpaper to smooth down all irregu-
larities. Lastly, use a clean rubber with a little strong
alcohol only, which will remove the oil and the cloudiness
it causes ; when the work will be complete.
Furniture Polishes. — New wood is often French-polished.
Or the following may be tried :
Melt three or four pieces of sandarach, each the size of
a walnut ; add one pint of boiled oil, and boil together
for one hour. While cooling add one drachm of Venice
turpentine, and if too thick a little oil of turpentine also.
Apply this all over the furniture, and after some hours rub
it off; rub the furniture daily, without applying fresh var-
nish, except about once in two months. Water does not
injure this polish, and any stain or scratch may be again
covered, which cannot be done with French polish.
Furniture Gloss. — To give a gloss to household furniture
various compositions are used, known as wax, polish, creams,
pastes, oils, etc. The following are some of the formulae used :
Ftirniture Cream. — Beeswax one pound, soap four ounces,
pearlash two ounces, soft water one gallon ; boil together
until mixed.
Furniture Oils. — i. Acetic acid two drachms, oil of lav-
ender one-half drachm, rectified spirit one drachm, linseed
oil four ounces. 2. Linseed oil one pint, alkanet root two
ounces; heat, strain and add lac varnish one ounce. 3.
Linseed oil one pint, rectified spirit two ounces, butter of
antimony four ounces.
Furniture Pastes. — i. Beeswax, spirit of turpentine and
linseed oil, equal parts ; melt and cool. 2. Beeswax four
ounces, turpentine ten ounces, alkanet root to color ; melt
and strain. 3. Beeswax one pound, linseed oil five ounces,
alkanet root one-half ounce ; melt, add five ounces of tur-
pentine, strain and cool. 4. Beeswax four ounces, resin
one ounce, oil of turpentine two ounces, Venetian red to
color.
204 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Etching Varnishes. — i. White wax two ounces, black
and Burgundy pitch, of each one-half ounce ; melt to-
gether ; add, by degrees, powdered asphaltum two ounces,
and boil till a drop taken out on a plate will break when
cold by being bent double two or three times between the
fingers ; it must then be poured into warm water and made
into small balls for use. 2. (Hard Varnish.} Linseed oil
and mastic, of each four ounces; melt together. 3. (Soft
Varnish. ) Soft linseed oil four ounces, gum benzoin and white
wax, each one-half ounce ; reduced by boiling to two-thirds.
Varnish for Engravings, Maps, etc. — Digest gum sanda-
rach twenty parts, gum mastic eight parts, camphor one
part, with alcohol forty-eight parts. The map or engrav-
ing inust previously receive one or two coats of gelatine.
Varnish to fix Engravings or Lithographs on Wood. — For
fixing engravings or lithographs upon wood, a varnish
called mordant is used in France, which differs from others
chiefly in containing more Venice turpentine, to make it
sticky. It consists of sandarach 250 parts, mastic in tears
64, rosin 125, Venice turpentine 250, alcohol 1000 parts
(by measure).
Varnishes for Oil Paintings and Lithographs. — i. Dex-
trine two parts, alcohol one part, water six parts. 2. Var-
nish for drawings and lithographs : dextrine two parts,
alcohol one-half part, water two parts. These should be
prepared previously with two or three coats of thin starch,
or rice, boiled and strained through a cloth.
Varnish for Oil Paintings. — Digest at a slow heat gum
sandarach two parts, gum mastic four parts, balsam copaiba
two parts, white turpentine three parts, with spirits of tur-
pentine four parts, alcohol (95 per cent.) 50 to 56 parts.
Beautiful Varnish for Paintings and Pictures. — Honey
one pint, the white of two dozen fresh hens' eggs, one
ounce of good clean isinglass, twenty grains of hydrate of
potassium, one-half ounce of chloride of sodium. Mix to-
VARNISHES. % 205
gether over a gentle heat of eighty or ninety degrees Fahr-
enheit. Be careful not to let the mixture remain long
enough to coagulate the albumen of the eggs. Stir the
mixture thoroughly, then bottle. It is to be applied as
follows : one tablespoonful of the varnish added to half a
tablespoonful of good oil of turpentine ; then spread on
the picture as soon as mixed.
Milk of Wax. — Milk of wax is a valuable varnish, which
may be prepared as follows : Melt in a porcelain capsule a
certain quantity of white wax, and add to it, while in fu-
sion, an equal quantity of spirit of wine (of specific gravity
0.830) ; stir the mixture and pour it upon a large porphyry
slab. The granular mass is to be converted into a paste by
the muller, with the addition, from time to time, of a little
alcohol ; and as soon as it appears to be smooth and homo-
geneous, water is to be introduced in small quantities suc-
cessively, to the amount of four times the weight of the
wax. This emulsion is to be then passed through canvas,
in order to separate such particles as may be imperfectly
incorporated. The milk of wax, thus prepared, may be
spread with a smooth brush upon the surface of a painting,
allowed to dry, and then fused by passing a hot iron
over its surface. When cold, it is to be rubbed with
a linen cloth to bring out the lustre. It is to the un-
changeable quality of an encaustic of this nature that the
ancient paintings upon the walls of Herculaneum and Pom-
peii owe their freshness at the present day.
Crystal Varnishes. — i. Genuine pale Canada balsam and
rectified oil of turpentine equal parts ; mix, place the bottle
in warm water, agitate well, set it aside in a moderately
warm place, and in a week pour off the clear. Used for
maps, prints, drawings and other articles of paper, and
also to prepare tracing paper, and to transfer engravings.
2. Mastic three ounces, alcohol one pint; dissolve. Used
to fix pencil drawings.
206 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Italian Varnishes. — i. Boil Scio turpentine till brittle ,*
powder, and dissolve in oil of turpentine. 2. Canada
balsam and clear white resin, of each six ounces, oil of
turpentine one quart ; dissolve. Used for prints, etc.
Size, or Varnish, for Printers, etc. — Best pale glue and
white curd soap, of each 4 ounces; hot water 3 pints ; dis-
solve, then add powdered alum 2 ounces. Used to size
prints and pictures before coloring them.
Mastic Varnishes. — i. (fine.') Very pale and picked gum
mastic five pounds, glass pounded as small as barley, and
well washed and dried, two and one-half pounds, rectified
turpentine two gallons ; put them into a clean four gallon
stone or tin bottle, bung down securely, and keep rolling it
backwards and forwards pretty smartly on a counter or any
other solid place for at least four hours ; when, if the gum
is all dissolved, the varnish may be decanted, strained
through muslin into another bottle, and allowed to settle.
It should be kept for six or nine months before use, as it
thereby gets both tougher and clearer. 2. (Second Quality.^
Mastic eight pounds, turpentine four gallons ; dissolve by a
gentle heat, and add pale turpentine varnish one-half
gallon. 3. Gum mastic six ounces, oil of turpentine one
quart ; dissolve.
Mastic varnish is used for pictures, etc. ; when good, it
is tough, hard, brilliant, and colork-ss. Should it get
"chilled," one pound of well-washed siliceous sand should
be made moderately hot, and added to each gallon, which
must then be well agitated for five minutes, and afterwards-
allowed to settle.
India Rubber Varnishes. — i. Cut up one pound of India
rubber into small pieces and diffuse in half a pound of sul-
phuric ether, which is done by digesting in a glass flask on
a sand bath. Then add one pound pale linseed oil varnish,
previously heated, and after settling, one pound of oil of
VARNISHES. 207
turpentine, also heated beforehand. Filter, while yet
warm, into bottles. Dries slowly.
2. Two ounces India rubber finely divided and digested
in the same way, with a quarter of a pound of camphene,
and half an ounce of naphtha or benzole. When dissolved
add one ounce of copal varnish, which renders it more
durable. Principally for gilding.
3. In a wide-mouthed glass bottle, digest two ounces of
India rubber in fine shavings, with one pound of oil of
turpentine, during two days, without shaking; then stir up
with a wooden spatula. Add another pound of oil of
turpentine, and digest, with frequent agitation, until all is
dissolved. Then mix a pound and a half of this solution
with two pounds of very white copal-oil varnish, and a
pound and a half of well boiled linseed oil ; shake and
digest in a sand bath, until they have united into a good
varnish. — For morocco leather.
4. Four ounces India rubber in fine shavings are dissolved
in a covered jar by means of a sand bath, in two pounds of
crude benzole, and then mixed with four pounds of hot lin-
seed oil varnish, and half a pound of oil of turpentine.
Dries very well.
5. Flexible Varnish. — Melt one pound of rosin, and add
gradually half a pound of India rubber in very fine shavings,
and stir until cold. Then heat again, slowly, add one
pound of linseed oil varnish, previously heated, and
then filter.
6. Another. — Dissolve one pound of gum dammar, and a
half pound of India rubber, in very small pieces, in one
pound of oil of turpentine, by means of a water bath. Add
one pound of hot oil varnish and filter.
7. India rubber in small pieces, washed and dried, is
fused for three hours in a close vessel, on a gradually heated
sand bath. On removing from the sand bath, open the
vessel and stir for ten minutes, then close again, and
208 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
repeat the fusion on the following day, until small globules
appear on the surface. Strain through a wire sieve.
8. Varnish for Waterproof Goods. — Let a quarter of a
pound of India rubber, in small pieces, soften in a half
pound of oil of turpentine, then add two pounds of boiled
oil, and let the whole boil for two hours over a slow coal
fire. When dissolved, add again six pounds of boiled lin-
seed oil and one pound of litharge, and boil until an even
liquid is obtained. It is applied warm,
9. Gutta Percha Varnish. — Clean a quarter of a pound
of gutta percha from adhering impurities in warm water,
dry well, dissolve in one pound of rectified rosin oil, and
add two pounds of linseed oil varnish, boiling hot. Very
suitable to prevent metals from oxidation.
Black Varnish for Harness. — Digest shellac twelve parts,
white turpentine five parts, gum sandarach two parts, lamp-
black one part, with spirits of turpentine four parts, alcohol
ninety-six parts.
Boiled Oil or Linseed- Oil Varnish. — Boil linseed oil
sixty parts, with litharge two parts, and white vitriol one
part, each finely powdered, until all water is evaporated.
Then set by.
Dammar Varnish. — Gum dammar ten parts, gum san-
darach five parts, gum mastic one part ; digest at a low heat,
occasionally shaking, with spirits of turpentine twenty
parts. Finally, add more spirits of turpentine to give the
consistence of syrup.
Common Varnish. — Digest shellac one part, with alcohol
seven or eight parts.
Waterproof Varnishes. — Take one pound of flowers of
sulphur and one gallon of linseed oil, and boil them to-
gether until they are thoroughly combined. This forms a
good varnish for waterproofing textile fabrics. Another is
made with four pounds oxide of lead, two pounds of lamp-
black, five ounces of sulphur, and ten pounds of India rub-
VARNISHES. 209
her dissolved in turpentine. These substances, in the pro-
portions given, are boiled together until they are thor-
oughly combined. Coloring matters may be mixed with
them. Twilled cotton may be rendered waterproof by the
application of the oil-sulphur varnish. It should be applied
at two or three different times, and dried after each opera-
tion.
Varnishes for Balloons, Gas Bags, etc. — i. India rubber
in shavings one ounce ; mineral naphtha two Ibs. ; digest
at a gentle heat in a close vessel till dissolved, and strain.
2. Digest one pound of Indian rubber, cut small, in six
pounds of oil of turpentine for 7 day;, in a warm place.
Put the mixture in a water bath, heat until thoroughly
mixed, add one gallon of warm boiled drying oil, mix,
and strain wnen cold. 3. Linseed oil one gallon ; dried
white copperas and sugar of lead, each three ounces;
litharge eight ounces ; boil with constant agitation till it
strings well, then cool slowly and decant the clear. If
too thick, thin it with quicker-drying linseed oil.
Gold Varnish. — Digest shellac sixteen parts, gum san-
darach, mastic, of each three parts, crocus one part, gum
gamboge two parts, all bruised, with alcohol one hundred
and forty four parts. Or, digest seed-lac, sandarach, mastic,
of each eight parts, gamboge two parts, dragon's blood one
part, white turpentine six parts, turmeric four parts,
bruised, with alcohol one hundred and twenty parts.
Wainscot Varnish for House Painting and Japanning. —
Anime eight pounds; clarified linseed oil three gallons;
litharge one-fourth pound ; acetate of lead one-half pound;
sulphate of copper one-fourth pound.
All these materials must.be carefully but thoroughly
boiled together until the mixture becomes quite stringy,
and then five and a half gallons of heated turpentine
stirred in. It can be easily deepened in color by the ad-
dition of a little gold-size.
210 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Iron Work Black. — Put 48 Ibs. asphaltum into an iron
pot, and boil for 4 hours ; during the first 2 hours intro-
duce 7 Ibs. litharge, 3 Ibs. dried copperas, and 10 galls,
boiled oil ; add ^ Ib. run of dark gum, with 2 galls, hot oil.
After pouring the oil and gum, continue the boiling 2
hours, or until it will roll into hard pills, like Japan.
When cool, thin it off with 30 galls, of turpentine, or un-
til it is of proper consistence.
Black Japan Varnish. — Bitumen, 2 ounces; lampblack,
i ounce ; acetate of lead ^ ounce ; Venice turpentine, y2
ounce; boiled oil, 12 ounces. Melt the turpentine and
oil together, carefully stirring in the rest of the ingredi-
ents, previously powdered. Simmer all together for ten
minutes.
Tinware is japanned with Colored Copal Varnish, and
then baked in an oven until the varnish becomes perfectly
dry and hard. Varnishes may be colored with any of the
pigments used in oil painting.
Leather Varnish. — Durable leather varnish is composed
of boiled linseed oil, in which a drier, such as litharge,
has been boiled. It is colored with lampblack. This
varnish is used for making enamelled leather. Common
leather varnish, which is used as a substitute for black-
ing, is made of thin lac-varnish colored with ivory
black.
Varnish for Smooth Moulding Patterns. — Alcohol, I
gall. ; shellac, i Ib. ; lamp or ivory black sufficient to
color it.
Fine Black Varnish for Coaches. — Melt in an iron pot,
amber, 32 ozs. ; resin, 6 ozs. ; asphaltum, 6 ozs. ; dry-
ing linseed oil, i pt. ; when partly cooled add oil of
turpentine, warmed, i pt.
LACQUERS. 211
LACQUERS.
Gold Lacquer. — Put into a clean four-gallon tin, one
pound of ground turmeric, one and a half ounces of gam-
boge, three and a half pounds of powdered gum sandarach,
three-quarters of a pound of shellac, and two gallons of
spirits of wine. When shaken, dissolved, and strained, add
one pint of turpentine varnish, well mixed.
Red Spirit Lacquer. — Made exactly as the gold lacquer
with these ingredients : Two gallons of spirits of wine, one
pound of dragon's blood, three pounds of Spanish an-
notto, three and a quarter pounds of gum sandarach, and
two pints of turpentine.
Pale Brass Lacquer. — Two galls, spirits of wine; 3 oz.
Cape aloes cut small ; i Ib. fine pale shellac ; i oz. gam-
boge, cut small ) no turpentine ; varnish made exactly as
before. But observe, that those who use lacquers fre-
quently want some paler and some darker; and sometimes
inclining more to the particular tint of certain of the com-
ponent ingredients. Therefore, if a 4 oz. phial of a strong
solution of each ingredient be prepared, a lacquer of any
tint can be produced at any time.
Lacquer for Tin. — Any good lacquer laid upon tin gives
it the appearance of copper or brass. It is made by color-
ing lac-varnish with turmeric to impart the color of brass
to it, and with annotto, to give it the color of copper. If
a tin plate is dipped into molten brass, the latter metal will
adhere to it in a coat.
Lacquer Varnish. — A good lacquer is made by coloring
lac-varnish with turmeric and annotto. Add as much of
these two coloring substances to the varnish as will give it
the proper color ; then squeeze the varnish through a cot-
ton cloth, when it forms lacquer.
Deep Gold-colored Lacquer. — Seed-lac three ounces,
turmeric one ounce, dragon's blood one-fourth ounce, al-
212 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
cohol one pint ; digest for a week, frequently shaking,
decant and filter.
Lacquers are used upon polished metals and wood to
impart the appearance of gold. If yellow is required, use
turmeric, aloes, saffron, or gamboge; for red, use annotto,
or dragon's blood, to color. Turmeric, gamboge and
dragon's blood, generally afford a sufficient range of
colors.
Lacquers for Pictures, Metal, Wood or Leather. — i. Seed-
lac, eight ounces, alcohol one quart ; digest in a close
vessel in a warm situation for three or four days, then de-
cant and strain. 2. Substitute lac bleached by chlorine
for seed-lac. Both are very tough, hard and durable ; the-
last almost colorless.
Directions for Making Lacquer. — Mix the ingredients
and let the vessel containing them stand in the sun, or in
a place slightly warmed three or four days, shaking it
frequently till the gum is dissolved, after which let it settle
from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, when the clear
liquor may be poured off for use. Pulverized glass is some-
times used in making lacquer, to carry down the impurities.
Lacquer for Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, proof specific
gravity not less than 95-iooths, 2 galls. ; seed-lac, i lb.;
gum copal, i oz.; English saffron, i oz.; annotto, i oz.
Lacquer for Bronzed Brass. — To one pint of the above
lacquer, add, gamboge, i oz.; and after mixing it add an
equal quantity of the first lacquer.
Deep Gold-colored Lacquer. — Best alcohol, 40 oz.;
Spanish annotto, 8 grs.; turmeric, 2 drs. ; shellac, ^ oz. ;
red sanders, 12 grs. ; when dissolved add spirits of turpen-
tine, 30 drops.
Gold-colored Lacquer for Brass not Dipped. — Alcohol, 4
gals.; turmeric, 3 Ibs.; gamboge, 3 oz.; gum sandarach, 7
Ibs. ; shellac, ij^ lb. ; turpentine varnish, i pint.
Gold-colored Lacquer for Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 36
LACQUERS. 213
oz. ; seed lac, 6 oz. ; amber, 2 oz. ; gum gutta, 2 oz. ; red
sandal wood, 24 grs. ; dragon's blood, 60 grs. ; Oriental
saffron, 36 grs. ; pulverized glass, 4 oz.
Good Lacquer for Brass. — Seed-lac, 6 oz. ; amber or
copal, 2 oz. ; best alcohol, 4 gals. ; pulverized glass, 4 oz. ;
dragon's blood, 40 grs. ; extract of red sandal wood ob-
tained by water, 30 grs.
Lacquer for Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 12 gals. ; seed-lac,
9 Ibs. ; turmeric, i Ib. to a gallon of the above mixture ;
Spanish saffron, 4 oz.
The saffron is to be added for bronze work.
Good Lacquer. — Alcohol, 8 oz. ; gamboge, i oz.; shellac,
3 oz. ; annotto, i oz. ; solution of 3 oz. of seed-lac in i
pint of alcohol ; when dissolved add one-half ounce Venice
turpentine. One-quarter ounce dragon's blood will make it
dark. Keep it in a warm place four or five days.
Pale Lacquer for Tin Plate. — Best alcohol, 8 oz. ; tur-
meric, 4 drs. ; hay saffron, 2 scruples; dragon's blood, 1^2
scruples ; red sanders, i scruple ; shellac, i oz. ; gum san-
darach, 2 drs. ; gum mastic, 2 drs. ; Canada balsam, 2 drs. ;
when dissolved, add spirits of turpentine, 80 drops.
Red Lacquer for Brass. — Alcohol, 8 gals. ; dragon's
blood, 4 Ibs. ; Spanish annotto, 12 Ibs. ; gum sandarach,
13 Ibs. ; turpentine, i gal.
Pale Lacquer for Brass. — Alcohol, 2 gals. ; Cape aloes,
cut small, 3 oz. ; pale shellac, i Ib. ; gamboge, i oz.
Best Lacquer for Brass. — Alcohol, 4 gals. ; shellac, 2
Ibs. ; amber gum, i Ib. ; copal, 20 oz. ; seed-lac, 3 Ibs. ;
saffron, to color; pulverized glass, 8 oz.
Color for Lacquer. — Alcohol, i qt. ; annotto, 4 ozs.
Lacquer for Philo'oi>hical Instruments. — Alcohol, 80 oz. ;
gum gutta, 3 ozs. ; gum sandarach, 8 oz. ; gum elemi, 8
oz. ; dragon's blood, 4 oz. ; seed-lac, 4 oz. ; terra merita,
3 oz. ; saffron, 8 grs.; pulverized glass, 12 oz.
Soap Lacquers. — Soap lacquer possesses several properties
214 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKEJL
making it valuable for certain purposes. It can be prepares
very cheaply, remains entirely unchanged in water, and has
a considerable degree of elasticity. The simplest method
of preparation is as follows : Boil good tallow soap in rain
water, so that a clear solution is formed, and filter this,
while still hot, through several close cloths. Then again
heat the solution and dilute with an equal volume of rain
water. Next add a boiling-hot solution of alum as long as
a precipitate is formed. This precipitate is allowed to
settle, the supernatant- fluid is then poured off and the pre-
cipitate washed several times with boiling water. It is
then dried and heated in a pot standing in a vessel filled
with boiling water, until it becomes transparent. To pre-
pare lacquer heat oil of turpentine in a pot nearly to the
boiling-point, and add a sufficient quantity of the prepared
precipitate to form a solution of the consistency of thick
varnish. Should this prove too viscid when cold, it can
be readily reduced by adding hot oil of turpentine.
Articles coated with this lacquer should be placed near
a hot stove, so that they will dry quickly. The lacquer is
not acted upon by water, and, as it is perfectly flexible, can
be advantageously used for many purposes.
Another mode of preparation is as follows : Dissolve
green vitriol in water, add to this a solution of soap, and
collect the precipitate formed. When dry, dissolve the
precipitate in sulphide of carbon or benzine, so as to form
a fluid of the consistency of varnish.
Imitation of Japanese Lacquer. — Take 90 parts of oil of
turpentine and 1 20 of oil of lavender, and after freeing it
from any water which may be present by adding a small
quantity of calcined calcium chloride, and then carefully
pouring off the oil, combine it in a bottle with 2 parts of
camphor and 30 parts of copal. Place the bottle for
24 hours in hot ashes, shaking it occasionally, and finally
filter the contents through a cloth. The filtrate is again
MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 215
allowed to stand for 24 hours, when the clear, supernatant
fluid is poured off from the sediment.
MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS.
Armenian or Diamond Cement. — This article, so much
esteemed for uniting pieces of broken glass, for repairing
precious stones, and for cementing them to watch cases and
other ornaments, is made by soaking isinglass in water until
it becomes quite soft, and then mixing it with spirit in
which a little gum mastic and ammoniac have been dis-
solved.
The jewellers of Turkey, who are mostly Armenians,
have a singular method of ornamenting watch cases, etc.,
with diamonds and other precious stones, by simply gluing
or cementing them on. The stone is set in silver or gold,
and the lower part of the metal made flat, or to correspond
to the part to which it is to be fixed ; it is then warmed
gently, and has the glue applied, which is so very strong
that the parts so cemented never separate. This glue,
which will strongly unite bits of glass, and even polished
steel, and may be applied to a variety of useful purposes, is
thus made in Turkey :
Dissolve five or six bits of gum mastic, each the size of
a large pea, in as much spirits of wine as will suffice to
render it liquid ; and in another vessel dissolve as much
isinglass, previously a little softened in water (though none
of the water must be used), in French brandy or good rum,
as will make a two-ounce vial of very strong glue, adding
two small bits of gum albanum, or ammoniac, which
must be rubbed or ground till they are dissolved. Then
mix the whole with a sufficient heat. Keep the glue in a
vial closely stoppered, and when it is to be used, set the
vial in boiling water. A composition under the name
of Armenian cement has been made and sold; but this
216 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
composition is badly made ; it is much too thin, and the
quantity of mastic is much too small.
The following are good proportions: Isinglass, soaked
in water and dissolved in spirit, two ounces (thick) ; dis-
solve in this fen grains of very pale gum ammoniac (in
tears), by rubbing them together ; then add six large tears
of gum mastic, dissolved in the least possible quantity of
rectified spirit.
Isinglass, dissolved in proof spirit, as above, three ounces ;
bottoms of mastic varnish (thick but clear), one and a half
ounces ; mix well.
When carefully made, this cement resists moisture, and
dries colorless. As usually met with, it is not only of a
very bad quality, but sold at exorbitant prices.
Cement for Mending Earthen and Glassware. — i. Heat
the article to be mended to little above boiling-water heat,
then apply a thin coating of gum shellac on both surfaces
of the broken vessel, and when cold it will be as strong as
it was originally. 2. Dissolve gum shellac in alcohol, ap-
ply the solution, and bind the parts firmly together until
the cement is perfectly dry.
Cement for Stoneware. — Another cement in which an
analogous substance, the curd or caseine of milk, is em-
ployed, is made by boiling slices of skim-milk cheese into
a gluey consistence in a great quantity of water, and then
incorporating it with quicklime on a slab with a muller, or
in a marble mortar. When this compound is applied warm
to broken edges of stoneware, it unites them very firmly
after it is cold.
Iron-rust Cement. — The iron-rust cement is made of from
50 to 100 parts of iron borings, pounded and sifted, mixed
with i part of sal-ammoniac, and when it is to be applied
moistened with as much water as will give it a pasty con-
sistency. Formerly flowers of sulphur were used, and much
more sal-ammoniac in making this cement, but with no de-
MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 217
cided advantage, as the union is effected by oxidation,
consequent expansion and solidification of the iron pow-
der, and any heterogeneous matter obstructs the effect.
The best proportion of sal-ammoniac is, I believe, one per
cent, of the iron borings. Another composition of the
same kind is made by mixing 4 parts of fine borings or
filings of iron, 2 parts of potters' clay, and i part of
pounded potsherds, and making them into a paste with salt
and water. When this cement is allowed to concrete
slowly on iron joints, it becomes very hard.
For making Architectural Ornaments in Relief. — For
making architectural ornaments in relief, a moulding com-
position is formed of chalk, glue and paper paste. Even
statues have been made with it, the paper aiding the cohe-
sion of the mass.
Mastics of a resinous or bituminous nature, which must
be softened or fused by heat, are the following :
Varley1 s Mastic. — Mr. S. Varley's consists of 16 parts,
of whiting sifted and thoroughly dried by a red heat, add-
ing when cold a melted mixture of 16 parts of black rosin
and i of beeswax, and stirring well during the cooling.
Electrical and Chemical Apparatus Cement. — Electrical
and chemical apparatus cement consists of 5 Ibs. of rosin,,
i of beeswax, i of red ochre, and 2 tablespoonfuls of
Paris plaster, all melted together. A cheaper one for ce-
menting voltaic plates into wooden troughs, is made with
6 pounds of rosin, i pound of red ochre, half a pound of
plaster of Paris, and one-quarter of a pound of linseed oil..
The ochre and the plaster of Paris should be calcined be-
forehand, and added to the other ingredients in their
melted state. The thinner the stratum of cement that is in-
terposed, the stronger, generally speaking, is the junction.
Cement for Iron Tubes, Boilers, etc. — Finely powdered
iron 66 parts, sal-ammoniac i part, water a sufficient quan-
tity to form into paste.
218 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Cement for Ivory, Mother of Pearl, etc. — Dissolve one
part of isinglass and two of white glue in thirty of water ;
strain and evaporate to six parts. Add one-thirtieth part
of gum mastic, dissolved in half a part of alcohol, and one
part of white zinc. When required for use, warm and
shake up.
Cement for Holes in Castings. — The best cement for this
purpose is made by mixing one part of sulphur in powder,
two parts of sal-ammoniac, and eighty parts of clean, pow-
dered iron turnings. Sufficient water must be added to
make it into a thick paste, which should be pressed into
the holes or seams which are to be filled'up. The ingre-
dients composing this cement should be kept separate, and
not mixed until required for use. It is to be applied cold,
and the casting should not be used for two or three days
afterwards.
Cement for Coppersmiths and Engineers. — Boiled lin-
seed oil and red lead, mixed together into a putty, are often
used by coppersmiths and engineers to secure joints. The
washers of leather or cloth are smeared with this mixture
in a pasty state.
A Cheap Cement. — Melted brimstone, either alone or
mixed with rosin and brick dust, forms a tolerably good
and very cheap cement.
Plumbers' Cement. — Plumbers' cement consists of black
rosin one part, brick dust two parts, well incorporated by
a melting heat.
Cement for Bottle Corks. — The bituminous or black ce-
ment for bottle corks, consists of pitch hardened by the
addition of rosin and brick dust.
China Cement.— Take the curd of milk, dried and pow-
dered, ten ounces ; quicklime one ounce, camphor two
drachms. Mix and keep in closely stoppered bottles. For
use, a portion is to be mixed with a iittle water into a
paste, to be applied quickly.
MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 219
Cement for Stone Structures. — The repairs of some of
the most important stone structures in Paris, includ-
ing the Pont Neuf, the Colonnade of- the Louvre, and
that of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, have, it is
said, been carried out with a cement by Prof. Brune. This
is made from 2 parts (by weight) of oxide of zinc, 2 of
crushed limestone and i of crushed grit, mixed and ground
together into a powder. To this is added a liquid con-
sisting of a saturated solution of zinc chloride, to which is
added an amount of ammonium chloride equal to one-sixth
of the zinc. The liquid is then diluted with two-thirds
its bulk of water, and one pound of the powder is mixed
with two and a half pints of the above liquid.
Roofing Cement. — Mix ordinary red oxide of iron and
boiled linseed oil so as to form a paint ; add to every quart
one gill of Japan dryer ; then add equal parts of Roman
water lime and Venetian red, until the mixture is as thick
as desired for the work to be done. This cement will be
found very useful for flashings, or for repairing leaky roofs,
as it dries quickly and can be applied by means of a small
brush to leaks on a standing seam roof, where it would be
impossible to solder. It is also useful for repairing cracked
seams, where the tin has become too rusty to be soldered.
Ammonia Shellac Cement. — The annoyance often expe-
rienced by the impossibility or imperfection of an air-tight
connection in using rubber plates and rings for making
connections between steam and other pipes and apparatus,
is entirely obviated by employing a cement which fastens
alike well to the rubber and to the metal or wood. Such
cement is prepared by a solution of shellac in ammonia.
This is best made by soaking pulverized gum shellac in ten
times its weight of strong ammonia, when a slimy mass is
obtained, which in three to four weeks will become liquid
without the use of hot water. This softens the rubber, and
-220 TIN, SIJEEOMKON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
'becomes, after the volatilization of the ammonia, hard and
impermeable 'to gases and fluids.
Cement for -Leather. — A mixture of India rubber and shel-
lac varnish makes a very adhesive leather cement. A strong
solution of common isinglass, with a little diluted alcohol
added to it, makes an excellent cement for leather.
'Marble Cement. — Take plaster of Paris and soak it in a
: saturated solution of alum; then bake the two in an oven,
'the same as gypsum is baked to make it plaster of Paris;
•after which they are ground to powder. It is then used as
'wanted, being mixed up with water, like plaster, and ap-
'plied. It sets into a very hard composition capable of
taking a very high polish. It may be mixed with various
coloring minerals to produce a cement of any color capable
of imitating marble.
A Good Cement. — Shellac dissolved in alcohol, or in a
solution of borax, forms a pretty good cement.
Cement for Marble-workers and Coppersmiths. — White
•of egg alone, or mixed with finely sifted quicklime, will
•answer for uniting objects which are not exposed to mois-
ture. The latter combination is very strong, and is much
'employed for joining pieces of spar and marble ornaments.
A similar composition is used by coppersmiths to secure
the edges and rivets of boilers — only bullock's blood is
the albuminous matter used instead of white of egg.
Transparent Cement for Glass. — Dissolve one part of
India rubber in 64 of chloroform ; then add gum mastic in
powder 14 to 24 parts, and digest for two days with fre-
quent shaking. Apply with a camel-hair brush.
Cement to Mend Iron Pots and Pans. — Take two parts
of sulphur and one part (by weight) of fine black lead ;
put the sulphur in an old iron pan, holding it over the fire
until it begins to melt ; then add the lead ; stir well until
all is mixed and melted ; then pour out on an iron plate,
•or smooth stone. When cool, break into small pieces. A
MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 221
sufficient quantity of this compound being placed upon the
crack of the iron pot to be mended, can be soldered by a
hot iron in the same way as a tinsmith solders his sheets. If
there is a small hole in the pot, drive a copper rivet in it
and then solder over it with this cement.
Cement to Render Cisterns and Casks Water-tight, — An
excellent cement for resisting moisture is made by incorpo-
rating thoroughly eight parts of melted glue, of the con-
sistence used by carpenters, with four parts of linseed oil,
boiled into varnish with litharge. This cement hardens in
about forty-eight hours, and renders the joints of wooden
cisterns and casks air and water tight. A compound of
glue with one-fourth its weight of Venice turpentine, made
as above, serves to cement glass, metal and wood, to one
another. Fresh-made cheese curd and old skim-milk
cheese, boiled in water to a slimy consistence, dissolved in
a solution of bicarbonate of potash, are said to form a
good cement for glass and porcelain. The gluten of
wheat, well prepared, is also a good cement. White of
eggs, with flour and water, well mixed, and smeared over
linen cloth, forms a ready lute for steam joints in small ap-
paratus.
Cement for Repairing Fractured Bodies of all Kinds. —
White lead ground upon a slab with linseed oil varnish,
and kept from contact with the air, affords a cement capable
of repairing fractured bodies of all kinds. It requires a
few weeks to harden. When stone or iron is to be ce-
mented together, a compound of equal parts of sulphur
with pitch answers very well.
Cement for Cracks in Wood. — Make a paste of slacked
lime one part, rye meal two parts, with a sufficient quan-
tity of linseed oil. Or, dissolve one part of glue in six-
teen parts of water, and when almost cool stir in sawdust
and prepared chalk a sufficient quantity ; or, oil varnish,
222 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
thickened with a mixture of equal parts of white lead, red
lead, litharge and chalk.
Cement for Joining Metals and Wood. — Melt rosin and
stir in calcined plaster until reduced to a paste, to which
add boiled oil a sufficient quantity to bring it to the con-
sistence of honey; apply warm. Or, melt rosin 180 parts,
and stir in burnt umber 30, calcined plaster 15, and boiled
oil 8 parts.
Gasfitters* Cement. — Mix together, resin four and one-
half parts, wax one part, and Venetian red three parts.
Impervious Cement for Apparatus, Corks, etc. — Zinc
white rubbed up with copal varnish to fill up the inden-
tures ; when dry, to be covered with the same mass, some-
what thinner, and lastly, with copal varnish alone.
Cement for Fastening Brass to Glass Vessels. — Melt
rosin 150 parts, wax 30, and add burnt ochre 30, and cal-
cined plaster 2 parts. Apply warm.
Cement for Fastening Blades, Files, etc. — Shellac two
parts, prepared chalk one, powdered and mixed. The
opening for the blade is filled with this powder, the lower
end of the iron heated and pressed in.
Hydraulic Cement Paint. — If hydraulic cement be mixed
with oil, it forms a first-rate anti-combustible and excellent
water-proof paint for roofs of buildings, outhouses, walls,
etc.
Sorel' s Cement is obtained by mixing oxide of zinc with
a concentrated solution of zinc chloride. This cement is
very hard and not readily attacked by acids.
Sorel 's Magnesia Cement is obtained by mixing a concen-
trated solution of magnesium chloride with calcined mag-
nesia. In using the cement, sand, silica, barium sulphate,
etc., are frequently added. It is very hard and almost in-
soluble in water.
London Mastic Cement is a mixture of 35 parts of quartz
sand with 62 of pulverized limestone or sandstone and 3
MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 223
of litharge. The mixture is made into a paste by knead-
ing with seven parts of linseed oil. In one month the
mass becomes so hard that it throws out sparks when struck
with a steel.
Keene's Marble Cement consists of gypsum burnt and
ground, which previous to burning has been moistened
with alum solution. For use it is made into a paste with
alum solution.
Martin's Cement is a solution of alum and potassium car-
bonate made into a paste with strongly-burnt gypsum.
Parian Cement consists of gypsum saturated with borax
solution (i part borax to n water). The gypsum is to be
thoroughly burnt and after grinding made into a paste with
solution of tartar (i part tartar to n water).
Lowitrf s Cement for the Protection of Wood and Stone
against Moisture is a mixture of 65 parts of chalk, 34 of
colophony, i of oil of turpentine, to which, after melting
together, add 200 parts of sand and 8 of coal tar.
IMPORTANT METALLIC ALLOYS.
Most metals are capable of existing in a state of combi-
nation with each other in every proportion, or at least in
definite proportions, and thus form alloys. The melting-
point of an alloy is, as a rule, lower than that of its sepa-
rate constituents. Many alloys possess the characteristics
of a mixture and the mean properties of their constituent
metals, while others approach chemical combinations and
partly show other properties than their components. The
formation of actual chemical compounds, in some cases,
when two metals are melted together, is indicated by sev-
eral phenomena, viz. : The evolution of heat, as in the
case of platinum and tin, copper and zinc, etc. In the
solidification of alloys, the temperature does not always
fall uniformly, but often remains stationary at particular
224 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
degrees, which may be regarded as the solidifying points
of the compounds then crystallizing. Tin and lead melted
together in any proportion always form a compound which
solidifies at 187° Fahrenheit.
Generally speaking, alloys are more readily destroyed
by external influences than the pure metals, though there
are exceptions to this rule.
Many alloys, when in a melted state and slowly cooling,
successively separate definite combinations, which fre-
quently are crystalline and show a different chemical com-
bination ; technically, such a separation is called liquation.
Alloys of Copper and Zinc — Brass and Similar Alloys. —
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc in quite varying pro-
portions. Ordinary brass contains from 18 to 50 per
cent, of zinc (on an average, i part of zinc to 2 of cop-
per). With a higher content of copper, the alloy acquires
a reddish color, and is then called tombac. Tombac con-
tains at the utmost 18 per cent, of zinc, and is chiefly used
where great ductility, flexibility and moderate hardness are
required : or instance, for fine works of wire and sheet,
and where a reddish color is desired, as in articles which
are to be gilded. For most technical purposes, however,
brass more rich in zinc is used, because it is cheaper, and
besides, fuses more readily. Brass for the manufacture of
ordinary, coarser articles, consists generally of very zinc-
iferous, and therefore cheap, alloys, which, moreover, are
frequently prepared from impure raw materials. On the
other hand, brass for sheet and wire is made of very pure
materials and contains somewhat less zinc than ordinary
brass — generally 25 to 35 per cent., and only exceptionally
up to 37 per cent. Besides copper and zinc, brass fre-
quently contains small quantities of other metals (tin, lead,
iron), which are seldom intentionally added, but are gen-
erally contained in the metals used. With brass are classed
a number of copper-zinc alloys (Aich-metal, Muntz-metal,
COPPER-ZINC ALLOYS.
225
oreide, etc.),which are prepared for certain purposes. The
composition of these alloys is given below.
The color of copper-zinc alloys varies according to the
content of zinc, as shown in the following table :
Color of Copper-zinc Alloys.
Content
of
Zinc.
o
S
Content
of
Zinc.
g
3
5 Per
10
16
20
22
25
27
30
cen
1
Red.
Red-brownish.
Red-yellow.
Reddish-yellow.
Reddish-yellow.
Pale-yellow.
Yellow.
Yellow.
35 Per
38
4i
50
60
70
80
90
cen
<
t... .
Deep-yellow.
Deep-yellow.
Reddish-yellow.
Golden-yellow.
Bismuth-gray.
Antimony-gray.
Zinc-gray.
Zinc-gray.
Composition of Various Copper-zinc Alloys.
Name.
1
6
\
N
c
H
\
*"%
|l
Tombac, English
Tombac, Nuremberg..
Chrysochalk..
86.4
84.6
90
13-6
»54
7.9
1.6
Tombac, resembling gold...
Tombac, for buttons
Pinchbeck
89.97
99-15
Q-? 6
9.96
0.85
6 4
0.05
Oreide, resembling gold
Talmi-gold*
90
86.4
10
12.2
i.i
0.3 iron.
Mannheim gold, or similor. .
Muntz-metal or yellow-metal.
Aich, or sterro-metal, malle-
able in the heat
89.44
60
60
72
9-93
40
38-2
28
0.62
1.8 iron.
Sterling-metal
Prince-metal or Bristol-metal.
66.2
75-5
6c -i
33-1
24-5
•34 7
0.7 iron.
* Genuine Talmi-gold consists of plated sheet-tombac ; it contains
about I per cent of gold.
15
226 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Alloys of Copper and Tin. — Bronze is an alloy of cop-
per and tin, with or without the addition of other
metals, it being generally composed of 73 to 92 per cent,
of copper, and 6.7 to 26.7 per cent, of tin. It is used for
statues, ornamentations, etc. By quenching in cold water
bronze becomes ductile. By frequent melting and subse-
quent slow cooling the tin liquates.
Gun-metal contains on an average 90 to 9 1 per cent, of
copper and 9 to 10 per cent, of tin, and sometimes a small
quantity of lead and zinc. In cooling the melted alloy,
liquation takes place, a more readily fluid, very hard alloy,
richer in tin, separating from a tougher alloy, poorer in
tin. This inclination of the alloy towards liquation is very
injurious in casting.
Steel-bronze or Uchatius-bronze contains 8 per cent, of
tin, and is chiefly used for ordnance. In casting, a copper
rod about i ^ inches in diameter is set as a core in the centre
of the thick iron mould. This conductor serves as a con-
ductor of heat, the same as the chill in chilled castings,
and is later on removed by drilling. The alloy is crystal-
line and has a golden-yellow color. To increase the
strength, steel bolts varying in diameter from 0.39 to 1.95
inch are forced into the bored barrel by means of a hy-
draulic press.
Bell-metal consists on an average of 78 per cent, copper
and 22 per cent. tin.
Speculum-metal contains on an average 30 to 35 per cent,
tin, and 64 to 69 per cent, copper. To increase the white
color, a small quantity of arsenic or antimony is some-
times added.
Art-bronze, as at present used for monuments, etc., con-
tains on an average 86.6 per cent, of copper, 6.6 per cent,
of tin, 3.3 per cent, of lead and 3.3 per cent, of zinc.
By the action of the air the bronze becomes in time
coated with patina.
ALLOYS. 227
Phosphor-bronze consists of about 90 per cent, of cop-
per, 9 per cent, of tin, and from 0.5 to 0.75 per cent, of
phosphorus. With a content of over 5 per cent, of phos-
phorus the alloy acquires a color similar to gold.
The melted metal is very thinly fluid and fills the mould
well. By changing the proportions of the constituents the
alloy acquires different properties. It can be made as soft
as copper, as tenacious as iron, and as hard as steel. The
composition of alloys intended for rolling and drawing
processes differs from that of alloys for castings. For arti-
cles requiring strength, ductility and durability, phosphor-
bronze is superior to gun metal and brass. It does not
become crystalline by shocks, nor does it break when re-
peatedly bent. It is employed for many purposes, chiefly
for wire, tubes, art castings, ships' screws, cylinders, valves,
bearings, and as anti-friction metal.
Silicon bronze is a combination of copper with silicon.
Its breaking strength is as great as that of phosphor-bronze,
and it possesses besides greater power of conducting elec-
tricity. It is principally used for telephone and telegraph
wires, the composition of wires as manufactured by Lazare
Weilers, of Angouleme, France, being as follows :
Silicon telephone wire, A : Copper, 99.94 per cent. ; tin,
0.03; silicon, 0.02 : iron, a trace.
Silicon telegraph wire, A: Copper, 97.12 per cent. ; tin,
1.14; silicon, 0.05; zinc, 1.62; iron, a trace.
Manganese bronze is prepared by addition of ferro-man-
ganese either to copper alone or to copper and zinc, or,
finally, to copper, zinc and tin. The Bronze Company,
in England, manufactures five varieties : In quality I, the
z\nc added to the copper preponderates considerably over
the tin; quality II very much resembles the mixture of
quality I, the principal difference being that the materials
are melted in the crucible. Quality III is made of copper
and tin in the proportion customary for gun metal (83 to
228 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
82 parts of copper, 17 to 18 of tin), to which a quantity
of ferro-manganese is added.
Delta metal is an alloy of zinc, iron and copper, to which
during fusing phosphorus and, according to the desired
properties, tin, manganese and lead are added. It has the
color of a gold-silver alloy, and can be worked cold as well
as warm ; it is not weldable, but with some care can be sol-
dered, and does not rust. On account of its great strength
it is used as a substitute for steel in torpedoes, bicycles,
ships' cables, in the construction of steam vessels, etc.
The following table shows some compositions of Delta
metal :
Cast,
per cent.
Wrought,
per cent.
Rolled,
per cent.
Hot
Punched,
per cent.
CC 04
cc go
?S 82
C4 22
v^jppci
Lead
0.72
1.82
0.76
I.IO
o 87
I 28
086
Manganese
0.81
0.96
1.38
I.Og
Zinc
41.61
40 07
41 41
42 2?
Nickel
trace.
trace.
o 06
o 16
Phosphorus
o 013
o on
o 02
99.963
99.941
100.29
99-83
Silveroid consists of copper and nickel, to which, accord-
ing to the purpose for which it is intended, zinc, tin and
lead are added. The alloy is very white, lustrous, fine-
grained and of great strength ; it is employed as a substi-
tute for gun metal and brass where lustrous color and polish
are required.
Cobalt bronze is still more lustrous than silveroid, but
also more expensive. The alloy contains only a small
quantity of cobalt. On account of its taking a very fine
ALLOYS. 229
polish, and its hardness and strength, it is used in the
manufacture of fine ornamental articles and instruments.
Aluminium bronze is an alloy of aluminium and copper.
It comes into commerce in various qualities, the usual alloys
being those containing i, 2, 5, 7.5 and 10 per cent, of
aluminium. The 5 per cent, bronze is golden in color,
polishes well, casts beautifully, is very malleable cold or
hot, and has great strength, especially after hammering.
The 7.5 per cent, bronze has a peculiar greenish-gold color,
which makes it very suitable for decoration. All these
good qualities are possessed by the 10 per cent, bronze.
It is bright-golden, keeps its polish in the air, may be
easily engraved, shows a greater elasticity than steel, and
can be soldered with hard solder.
Aluminium bronze is, in every respect, considered the
best bronze yet known. Its high cost alone prevents its
extensive use, but since the perfection of the reduction of
aluminium by electric furnaces, the cost of manufacture has
been greatly reduced, and promises to be still lower in the
near future. For making small quantities of aluminium
bronze the following directions are given : Melt the copper
in a plumbago crucible, and heat it somewhat hotter than
its melting-point. When quite fluid and the surface clean,
sticks of aluminium of a suitable size are taken in tongs
and pushed down under the surface, thus protecting the
aluminium from oxidation. The first effect is necessarily
to chill the copper more or less in contact with the alumin-
ium ; but if the copper was at a good heat to start with,
the chilled part is speedily dissolved and the aluminium
attacked. The chemical action of the aluminium is then
bhown by a rise of temperature which may even reach a
white heat. Considerable commotion may take place at
first, but this gradually subsides. When the required
amount of aluminium has been introduced, the bronze is
let stand for a few minutes, and then well stirred, taking
230 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
care not to rub or scrape the sides of the crucible. By the
stirring, the slag — which commences to rise even during
the alloying — is brought almost entirely to the surface.
The crucible is then taken out of the furnace, the slag re-
moved with a skimmer, the melted metal again stirred to
bring up what little slag still remains in it, and is then
ready for casting. It is very injurious to leave it longer in
the fire than is absolutely necessary. No flux is necessary,
the bronze needing only to be covered with charcoal pow-
der. The particular point to be attended to in melting
these bronzes is to handle as quickly as possible when once
melted. As with ordinary brass and bronze, two or three
remeltings are needed before the combination of the metal
appears to be perfect and the bronze takes on its best qual-
ities.
Alloys of Cfpper, Zinc and Nickel, German Silver, Ar-
gentan or Pakfong. — The composition of German silver
varies within the following limits : Copper, 50 to 66 per
cent.; zinc, 19 to 31 ; nickel, 13 to 18.5.
a. Ordinary German Silver : Copper, 8 parts ; zinc,
3.5; nickel, 2; yellow, used for ordinary articles, wire,
etc.
b. Wfiite German Silver : Copper, 8 ; zinc, 3.5 ; nickel,
3 ; color, white.
c. Electrum : Copper, 8; zinc, 3.5; nickel, 4; takes a
very high polish and very much resembles silver.
d. Tutenag (Pakfong) : Copper, 8; zinc, 6.5 ; nickel, 3.
German silver, being less attacked by acid fluids than
brass or copper, is much used for forks and spoons, and
other household utensils. Tested by the touchstone, German
silver can only be distinguished from genuine silver by its
streak being more rapidly dissolved on moistening with
nitric acid.
Britannia Metal is an alloy of tin 65 to 97 per cent.,
antimony i to 24, copper i to 5. It is of a silver-white
ALLOYS.
231
color and is used for coffee-pots, tea-pots, etc. By polish-
ing, the alloy acquires great lustre. It can be rolled out
into thin sheets, tarnishes but slightly on exposure to the
air, and is less attacked by organic acids than tin. The
melting-point of an alloy with 10 per cent, antimony is
456.8° Fahr., and with 18 per cent, antimony 482° F. Its
specific gravity is the higher the greater the content of tin,
an alloy of 97.9 per cent, tin and 2.1 per cent, antimony
having a specific gravity of 7.279, and one of 74 per cent,
tin and 26 per cent, antimony only one of 7.100.
Composition of Various Kinds of Britannia Metal.
Contents in per cent.
Tin.
Antimony.
Copper.
Zinc .
|
Britannia sheet
92.0
6
2
Britannia sheet (Birmingham)
Bricannia metal, for spoons. .
ill
8.7
1.4
2.9
90.71
93-7
9.20
3-8
O.09
2-5
2.9
Britannia metal, for turning..
Readily Fusible Alloys.
g
4-
j
3
-
1
1
e
a
"S
Ifi
3
P
3
s
Rose's metal
2
I
,
2CX3.6
Rose's alloy, according to
7
•
6
Wood's alloy, according to
W. Spring
Lipowitz's alloy, according
4
2
2
2
149 to 158
1 1
6
g
232 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Alloys of the Noble Metals. — Gold is alloyed with cop-
per or silver, or with both metals. Silver is always alloyed
with copper.
Various Alloys. — Copper and silver, in equal parts, with
2 per cent, of arsenic, form an alloy similar to silver, with
the exception of being a little harder, although of almost
equal tenacity and malleability.
Antimony imparts a beautiful red color to copper, vary-
ing from a rose-red where much antimony is added, to a
crimson or violent tinge with smaller quantities of anti-
mony.
Yellow Brass for Turning. — Copper, 20 Ibs. \ zinc, 10
Ibs. ; lead, from i to 5 oz. Put in the lead last, before
pouring out.
Red Brass for Turning. — Copper, 24 Ibs. ; zinc, 5 Ibs.j
lead, 8 oz. Put in the lead last, before pouring out. Or,
copper, 32 Ibs. ; zinc, 10 Ibs. ; lead, i Ib.
Red Brass to Turn Freely. — Copper, 160 Ibs. ; zinc,
150 Ibs. ; lead, 10 Ibs. ; antimony, 44 oz.
Best Red Brass for Fine Castings. — Copper, 24 Ibs. ;
zinc, 5 Ibs. ; bismuth, i oz. Put in the bismuth last, be-
fore pouring out.
Rolled Brass. — Copper, 32; zinc, 10; tin, 1.5.
Hard Brass for Casting. — Copper, 25 ; zinc, 2 ; tin, 4.5.
Bell Metal. — Fine : Copper, 71 ; tin, 26; zinc, 2 ; iron,
i. For large bells : Copper, 100 Ibs. ; tin, 20 to 25 Ibs.
For small bells : Copper, 3 Ibs. ; tin, i Ib.
For Bells of Clocks. — Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26.56;
iron, 1.44.
For Journal Boxes. — Copper, 24 Ibs. ; tin, 24 Ibs. ; an-
timony, 8 Ibs. Melt the copper first, then add the tin,
and lastly the antimony. It should first be run into ingots,
then melted and cast in the required form. Another mix-
ture is as follows ; Copper, 10 Ibs. ; tin, i Ib. ; zinc, 10 oz.
Bearing Metals for Locomotives. — i. Copper, 86 parts;
ALLOYS.
233
tin, 14. 2. Copper, 85.25 parts; tin, 127.5 > zinc> 2- 3-
Copper, 80 parts; tin, 16 ; lead, 2 ; antimony, 2.
Brasses for Locomotive Side-rods. — Copper, 6 Ibs.j tin,
i Ib. ; to every 100 Ibs. of this mixture add one-half Ib.
each of zinc and lead.
Brasses for Locomotive Driving-boxes. — The same as for
side-rod brasses, though some prefer harder brasses, and
call for 10 Ibs of copper, 2 of tin, and i Ib. each of zinc
and lead.
Queen's Metal. — Tin, TOO Ibs. ; regulus of antimony,
8 ; bismuth, i ; copper, 4.
Hard IVJiite Metal. — Grain copper, 3 Ibs.; tin, 90 Ibs.;
antimony, 70 Ibs.
Metal for Taking Impressions. — Lead, 6 Ibs. ; tin, 4 Ibs. ;
bismuth, 10 Ibs.
Rivet Metal. — Copper, 4 Ibs. ; tin, 4 oz. ; zinc, 2 oz.
Rivet Metal for Hose, Belting, etc. — Copper, 32 Ibs. ;
tin, one-half Ib.
Bullet Metal. — Lead, 98 parts ; arsenic, 2.
Bath Metal. — Brass, 32 parts; zinc, 9.
Cock Metal. — Copper, 20 Ibs., lead, 8 Ibs.; litharge, i
oz. ; antimony, 3 oz.
White Metals.
d
a
£
a
|
*
1
3
|
d
|
|
Alloys.
P
a
s
*
-
N
S
89
7S
q
2
2
8
7
8
Plate pewter.
Queen's metal.
8q
2
6
2
I
Britannia metal.
4
i
Pewter.
80
20
Music metal.
SO
5°
Silver leaf.
qo
10
Organ pipes.
100
29
19
2
2
8
Best plate pewter.
Reflector metal.
234 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
The last two alloys are used for coating the insides of
glass globes and many other similar purposes. A little of
the metal is poured into the globe, or other vessel, which,
being turned about, receives a thin film of a brilliant, sil-
very appearance, the excess of metal being poured back
into the ladle.
Expansive Metal. — Lead, 9 parts ; antimony, 2 ; bis-
muth, i. This alloy expands on cooling, and is used for
filling small holes or defects in castings.
Bronze for Gilding. — This should be fusible at a low
temperature, compact and close-grained. Copper, 82.25;
zinc, 17.50, and tin, 0.25 ; gilds well.
Blanched Copper. — Fuse i Ib. of copper and i oz. of
neutral arsenical salt with a flux made of calcined borax,
charcoal dust and powdered glass.
Ormolu. — The ormolu of the brass founder, which is an
imitation of red gold, is extensively used in ornamenting
iron work, as well as in many other branches of artistic
trade. It is composed of more copper and less zinc than
ordinary brass ; it is readily cleaned by acid, and can be
easily burnished. To make it more brilliant, it may be
brightened up after dipping by means of a scratch-brush.
To protect it from tarnish, it should be lacquered.
Stereotype Metal. — Tin, i ; antimony, i ; lead, 4 parts.
Type Metal. — Lead 9 parts to antimony i forms common
type metal ; lead 7 to i of antimony is used for large and
soft type ; lead 6 and antimony i for large type ; lead 5
and antimony i for middle type ; lead 4 and antimony i
for small type, and lead 3 to antimony i for the smallest
and hardest kinds of type.
Artificial Gold. — Pure copper, 100 parts; zinc (or pref-
erably tin), 17 parts; magnesia, 6 parts; sal-ammoniac,
three-sixth part ; quicklime, one-eighth part ; tartar of
commerce, 9 parts ; are mixed as follows : The copper is
first melted; then the magnesia, sal-ammoniac, lime,
SOLDERS.
235
and tartar are added, separately and by degrees, in the
form of powder ; the whole is now briskly stirred for about
half an hour, so as to mix thoroughly; and then the zinc
is added in small grains by throwing it on the surface ai.d
stirring till it is entirely fused ; the crucible is then cov-
ered and the fusion maintained for about 35 minutes. The
surface is then skimmed and the alloy is ready for casting.
It has a fine grain, is malleable and takes a splendid polish.
It does not corrode readily, and for many purposes is an
excellent substitute for gold. When tarnished, its bril-
liancy can be restored by a little acidulated water. If tin
be employed instead of zinc, the alloy will be more bril-
liant. It is very much used in France, and must ultimately
attain equal popularity here.
SOLDERS.
The following table gives the composition of soft solders
and their melting-points :
1
£
J
•£
9
1
s
c
1
"tc
|
j
1
e
$
2
r"
^
Q | 2
H
^
PQ
Q
,
I
25
558
IO
4
!
o
365
2
I
IO
541
ii
5
I
o
378
3
I
5
! 12
6
I
o
381
4
I
3
482
i 13
4
4
I
320
5
I
2
441
14
3
3
I
310
6
I
I
370
15
2
2
I
392
7
l%
I
334
16
I
I
I
354
8
2
I
340
17
2
I
2
336
9
3
I
356
; 18
3
5
8
202
By the addition of 3 parts of mercury to No. 18, it melts
at 122° Fahrenheit.
236 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Hard Solders,
,
Uses.
ex
1
>
U
N
X
Spelter, hardest
2
,
o
For iron work, gun metal, etc.
Spelter, hard
XK
I
o
For copper and iron.
Spelter, soft
I
I
o
For ordinary brass work.
Spelter, finer
2
2
0*4
For finer kinds of brass work.
f
o
4
( Hardest, but makes a very neat
t joint.
Silver solder, hard . .
I
O
i
j" Makes a sound joint, but will
\ not burn.
Silver solder, soft... .
I
O
2
For general use.
Solder for Gold. — Gold, 6 parts; silver, i ; copper, i.
White Solder for Raised Britannia Ware. — Tin, loolbs.;
^copper, 3 oz. ; to make it free, add lead, 3 oz.
Solder for Steel Joints. — Silver, 19 parts ; copper, i ;
brass, 2. Melt under a coat of charcoal dust.
Solders for Aluminium. — i. Col. Frishmuth, of Phila-
delphia, recommends a solder of 10 parts of silver, 10 of
copper, 20 of aluminium, 60 of tin and 30 of zinc. This
solder is especially suitable for ornamental chains, etc.
For solder to be used with the ordinary soldering iron,
either 95 parts of tin and 5 parts of bismuth, or 97 parts
of tin and 3 of bismuth, may be taken, paraffin, stearin,
vaseline, copaiba balsam or benzine being in all cases em-
ployed as a flux. The articles to be soldered must be thor-
oughly cleansed, and the parts to be united just sufficiently
heated for the solder to adhere to them. 2. Zinc, 80 parts
by weight; copper, 8; aluminium, 12. 3. Zinc, 85;
copper, 6 ; aluminium, 9. 4. Zinc, 88 ; copper, 5 ; alu-
minium, 7. 5. Zinc, 90; copper, 4; aluminium, 6. 6.
Zivir, 94 ; copper, 2 ; aluminium, 4. The solders are pre-
pared as follows : Melt the copper and gradually introduce
SOLDERS. 237
the aluminium in three or four portions. The specific
gravity of the two metals varying very much, as perfect a
union as possible should be brought about by stirring with
a clay rod. Immediately after the last portion of alumin-
ium has combined with the copper, add the zinc, throwing
at the same time a small quantity of fat or resin into the
crucible, and after quickly stirring pour the alloy into iron
moulds, previously coated with coal tar, oil or benzine.
The zinc used should be perfectly free from iron, since
even a very minute quantity of the latter has an inju-
rious effect upon the strength and fusibility of the alloys.
Solder for Aluminium Bronze, — Ordinary soft solder, 2
parts; zinc amalgam, i ; or, ordinary soft solder, 4; zinc
amalgam, i ; or, ordinary soft solder, 8 ; zinc amalgam, i.
Zinc amalgam is an alloy of zinc and mercury. It is pre-
pared by adding to 2 parts of melted zinc i of mercury,
and after vigorously stirring, cooling it off as quickly as
possible. When cold, it forms a very brittle alloy of a
silver-white color.
To prepare the solder for aluminium bronze, melt the
ordinary solder, and after adding the finely powdered zinc
amalgam, pour the solder at once into the moulds.
To Solder Platinum. — Heat the platinum on the place
to be soldered to a red heat over a Bunsen burner, and lay
a small piece of sheet-platinum upon the crack. For sol-
dering, an oxyhydrogen blow-pipe is required. The flame
is so regulated that, before the entrance of the oxygen, it is
about 4^ inches, and that after the admission of the cur-
rent of oxygen, the inner cone of flame has a length of
about 0.31 inch. This flame is gradually brought near the
place to be soldered. In the white heat the piece of
sheet platinum placed upon the crack melts to a ball,
and soon spreads over the crack, when the flame is to be
removed. If necessary, repeat the melting. It is advisable
238 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
to protect the eyes by smoked glasses from the Jight of the
dazzling white heat of the platinum.
Metallic Cement. — An alloy of copper and mercury,
useful when metals are to be soldered together at a low
temperature, can be made as follows : From 20 to 30
parts of finely divided copper, obtained by the reduction
of oxide of copper with hydrogen ; or by precipitating
from solution of its sulphate with zinc, are made into a
paste with oil of vitriol and 70 parts of mercury added ;
the whole being well triturated. When amalgamation is
complete, the acid is removed by washing with boiling water,
and the compound allowed to cool. In ten or twelve hours
it becomes sufficiently hard to receive a brilliant polish,
and to scratch the surface of tin or gold. To use the alloy
for soldering, it is warmed till it is about the consistency
of wax, and in this state it is applied to the joint, to which,
on cooling, it adheres very firmly.
To Color Soft Solder. — The following method for color-
ing soft solder so that when it is used for uniting brass the
colors may be about the same, has been recommended. In
making the solutions, care should be had to use glass or
earthen dishes. First prepare a saturated solution of sul-
phate of copper (blue vitriol) in water, and apply some of
this on the end of a stick or small brush to the solder. On
touching it then with an iron^or steel wire it becomes cop-
pered, and by repeating the experiment the deposit may
be made thicker and darker. To give the solder a yellow
color, mix in part of a saturated solution of sulphate of
zinc with two of sulphate of copper; apply this to the
coppered spot and rub with a zinc rod. The color may
still be improved by applying gilt powder and polishing.
On gold jewelry, or colored gold, the solder is first colored
yellow, as above described ; then a thin coat of gum or
isinglass solution is laid on, and bronze powder dusted
SOLDERS. 239
over it, making a surface which can be polished smooth
and brilliant when the gum is dry.
To Join Small £ and Saws. — The parts to be joined must
be bevelled to a nice fit. Secure the saw at both ends in
clamps. See that the edges are parallel, or a short and a
long edge will be the result, which will cause the saw to
run badly and when strained to break on the short edge.
Put on the filed parts a thin coat of borax paste. Cut a
piece of very thin sheet-silver solder of the same size as
joint to be made, which place between the lap. Take a
pair of tongs having suitably-sized jaws for the joint,
and that have been heated to a bright red, sufficiently to
melt the solder. Scrape all the scale off between the jaws
with an old file ; hold the joint with the hot tongs until
the solder has thoroughly melted ; remove the hot tongs
carefully, and follow up with another pair heated to a dull
red, which will set the solder and prevent the joint from
being chilled too suddenly. The joint can then be dressed
to thickness of the saw blade. It would be as well to have
a pair of cold tongs to clamp the hot jaws firmly to the
joint, as the hot iron must fit nicely over the whole width
of the saw. In joining, do not make the lap longer than
is absolutely necessary ; one-half inch is sufficient for scroll
saws, and three-quarter inch for saws two to eight inches
wide.
To Make Muriate of Zinc. — Feed into muriatic acid
small pieces of zinc until the mixture ceases to boil, after
which dilute with an equal portion of rain or distilled water.
To Prepare Borax for Brazing. — Roast the borax until
all the moisture is driven off ; pulverize and mix with dis-
tilled water to a thin paste.
Soldering Iron and Steel. — For large and heavy pieces
of iron and steel, copper or brass is used. The surfaces to
be united are first filed off, in order that they may be clean ;
they are then bound together with wire, a thin layer of
240 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
copper or brass laid along the junction, and the whole cov-
ered with a layer (i inch in thickness) of clay free from
sand. After drying, the pieces to be united are brought
to a white heat, and then plunged into cold water, in
the case of iron being soldered to iron ; or allowed
slowly to cool if iron be soldered to steel, or steel sol-
dered to steel. The vitrified clay is then broken off.
If brass instead of copper is used, it is not neces-
sary to heat so strongly ; the former, therefore, recom-
mends itself for steel. Articles of iron and steel of
medium size are best united with hard or soft brass solders.
In both cases the seams are cleanly filed and spread over
with solder and borax, when the soldering seam is heated.
Hard solder is prepared by melting in a crucible 8 parts
of brass, and adding i part of previously heated zinc.
The crucible is then covered and exposed to a glowing
heat for a few minutes ; then emptied into a pail with cold
water, the water being strongly agitated with a broom.
Thus the metal is obtained in small grains or granules.
Soft brass solder is obtained by melting together 6 parts of
brass, i of zinc, and i of tin. The granulation is carried
out as indicated above. Small articles are best soldered
with hard silver solder or soft solder. The former is ob-
tained by alloying equal parts of fine silver and soft brass.
In fusing, the mass is covered with borax, and, when cold,
the metal is beaten out to a thin sheet, of which a suffi-
ciently large and previously annealed piece is placed, with
borax, upon the seams to be united and heated. Soft solder
differs from hard silver solder only in that it contains one-
sixteenth of tin, which is added to it during fusion. Very
fine articles of iron and steel are soldered with gold, namely,
either with pure gold or hard gold solder. The latter can
be obtained by fusion of i part gold, 2 parts silver, and 3
copper. Fine steel wire can also be soldered with tin, but
the work is not very durable. Hard and soft brass solder
JOINTS.
241
are used for uniting brass to iron and steel, silver solder for
silver, hard gold solder for gold.
JOINTS.
The following are the more important seams or joints used
in metal plate work.
Fig. 170 shows the various methods of making joints at
Fig. 170.
angles of sheet-metal. A and B are .or the thinnest metals,
such as tin, which require a film of soft solder on one or
the other side. Sheet lead is similarly joined, and both are
usually soldered from within.
16
242 TIN, SHEET-IEON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
C and D are the butt and mitre joints used for thicker
metals with hard solders. Sometimes D is dovetailed
together, the edges being filed to correspond coarsely;
sometimes they are partly riveted before being soldered
from within. These joints are very weak when united with
soft solder.
E is the lap joint, the metal being creased over the
hatchet-stake. Tin plate requires an external layer of
solder ; spelter solder runs through the crack and does not
project.
F is folded by means of the hatchet-stake ; the two are
then hammered together, but require a film of solder to
prevent their sliding asunder.
G is the folded angle joint used for fire-proof deed boxes
and other strong work in which solder would be inadmis-
sible. It is common in tin and copper work, but less so
in iron and zinc, which do not bend so readily.
H is a riveted joint, which is very commonly used in
strong iron plate and copper work, as in boilers, etc.
Generally a rivet is inserted at each end, then the other
holes are punched through the two thicknesses. The head
of the rivet is put within, the metal is flattened around it,
by placing the small hole of a riveting set over the pin of
the rivet, and giving a blow ; the rivet is then clinched,
and is finished to circular form by the concave hollow in
the riveting set.
In /£"one plate is punched with a long mortise, the
other being formed into tenons, which are inserted and
riveted. K, however, has tenons with transverse keys,
which can be taken out and the plate released.
Fig. 170 also illustrates straight joints. L is the lap
joint employed with solder for tin-plates, sheet-lead, etc.,
and for tubes bent of these materials.
J/is the butt joint used for plates and small tubes of the
various metals. When united by hard solder or brazed,
JOINTS. 243
such joints are moderately strong, but with soft solder they
are very weak from the limited superficies of the adhering
surface.
TV is the cramp joint. The edges are thinned by the
hammer, the one is left plain, while the other is notched
obliquely with shears for one-eighth of an inch deep, each
alternate cramp is bent up, the other down, for insertion
of the plain edge. They are then hammered together and
brazed, after which they may be made nearly flat by the
hammer, and quite so by the file. The cramp joint is used
for thin work requiring strength. Sometimes the lap joint
(Z) is feather- edged. This improves it, but it is still
inferior to the cramp joint in strength.
O is the lap joint, without solder for tin, copper, iron,
etc. It is set down flat with a seam set, and is used for
smoke-pipes, and numerous "works not required to be steam
and water tight.
P is used for zinc works and others. It saves the
double bend of the preceding. It is sometimes called the
"patent strip over lap."
Q is the roll joint, used for lead roofs.
R is a hollow crease, used till recently for vessels and
chambers for making sulphuric acid. The metal is scraped
perfectly clean, filled with lead heated nearly to redness,
and the whole united by burning with an iron also heated
to redness. Solder which contains tin would be attacked
by the acid. This method of soldering is now superseded
by autogenous soldering.
ST are joints united by screw bolts or rivets, for iron
and copper boilers, etc.
U, united with rivets in ordinary manner of uniting the
plates of marine boilers, and other work requiring to be
flush externally.
V is a similar case, used of late years for constructing
the largest iron steam-ships, etc. The ribs of the vessel
244 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
are made of T iron, varying from about 4 to 8 inches
wide, which is bent to the curves by the employment of
very large surface plates cast full of holes, upon which the
wood-model of the rib is laid down, and a chalk mark is
made around its edge. Dogs or pins are wedged at short
intervals in all these holes, which intersect the course. The
rib heated to redness in a reverberatory furnace, is wedged
fast at one end, and bent around the pins by sets, and
sledge-hammers, and as it yields to the curve each pin is
secured by wedges until the whole is completed.
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS.
Paint for Coating Wire Work. — Boil good linseed oil
with as much litharge as will make it of the consistency to
be laid on with the brush ; add lampblack at the rate of
one part to every ten, by weight, of the litharge ; boil three
hours over a gentle fire. The first coat should be thinner
than the following coats.
Razor Paste. — i. Levigated oxide of tin (prepared putty
powder) i oz. ; powdered oxalic acid ^ oz. ; powdered gum
20 grs. ; make it into a stiff paste with water, and evenly
and thinly spread it over the strop. With very little
friction, this paste gives a fine edge to the razor, and its
efficiency is still further increased by moistening it.
2. Emery reduced to an impalpable powder 2 parts ;
spermaceti ointment i part ; mix together, and rub it over
the strop.
3. Jewellers' rouge, blacklead, and suet, equal parts ;
mix.
Ciitting Glass. — To cut bottles, shades, or other glass
vessels neatly, heat a rod of iron to redness, and having
filled your vessel the exact height you wish it to be cut,
with oil of any kind, you proceed very gradually to dip
the red hot iron into the oil, which, heating all along the
surface, suddenly the glass chips and cracks right round,
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 245
when you can lift off the upper portion clean by the sur-
face of the oil.
Prepared Liquid Glue. — Take of best white glue 16 oz. ;
white lead, dry, 4 oz. ; rain water 2 pts. ; alcohol 4 oz.
With constant stirring dissolve the glue and lead in the
water by means of a water-bath. Add the alcohol, and
continue the heat for a few minutes. Lastly pour into
bottles while it is hot.
Liquid Glues. — Dissolve 33 parts of best glue on the
steam bath in a porcelain vessel, in 36 parts of water.
Then add gradually, stirring constantly, 3 parts of aqua
fortis, or as much as is sufficient to prevent the glue from
hardening when cool. Or dissolve one part of powdered
alum in 120 of water, add 120 parts of glue, 10 of acetic
acid and 40 of alcohol, and digest.
Marine Glue. — Dissolve 4 parts of India rubber in 34
parts of coal tar naphtha — aiding the solution with heat
and agitation ; add to it 64 parts of powdered shellac,
which must be heated in the mixture, till the whole is dis-
solved. While the mixture is hot it is poured upon metal
plates in sheets like leather. When required for use, it is
heated in a pot, till soft, and then applied with a brush to
the surfaces to be joined. Two pieces of wood joined
with this glue can scarcely be sundered.
Dextrine, or British Gum. — Dry potato-starch heated
from 300° to 600° until it becomes brown, soluble in cold
water, and ceases to turn blue with iodine. Used by calico
printers and others, instead of gum arabic.
A Liquid Glue that Keeps for Years. — Dissolve 2 pounds
good glue in 2 and one-ninth pints hot water ; add grad-
ually 7 oz. nitric acid, and mix well.
An excellent liquid glue is also made by dissolving glue
in nitric ether ; this fluid will only dissolve a certain amount
of glue, consequently the solution cannot be made too
thick. The glue solution obtained has about the consist-
246 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPEK-PLATE WORKER.
ency of molasses, and is doubly as tenacious as that made
with hot water. If a few pieces of caoutchouc, cut into
scraps the size of buck-shot, be added, and the solution
allowed to stand a few days, being frequently stirred, it will
be all the better, and will resist dampness twice as well as
glue made with water.
Sealing-wax for Fruit-cans. — Beeswax, one-half oz. ;
English vermilion, i^ oz. ; gum shellac, 2^/2, oz. ; rosin,
8 oz. Take some cheap iron vessel that you can always
keep for the purpose, and put in the rosin and melt it, and
stir in the vermilion. Then add the shellac, slowly, and
stir that in, and afterward the beeswax. When wanted for
use at any after time, set it upon a slow fire and melt it so
you can dip bottle-nozzles in. For any purpose, such as
an application to trees, where you want it tougher than the
above preparation will make it, add a little more beeswax,
and leave out the vermilion.
If the vermilion is left out in the above, the wax will
be all the better for it, as it is merely used for coloring
purposes.
Browning Gun Barrels. — The tincture of iodine diluted
with one-half its bulk of water, is a superior liquid for
browning gun barrels.
Silvering Powder for Coating Copper. — Nitrate of silver,
30 grains ; common salt, 30 grains ; cream of tartar, 3^
drachms ; mix, moisten with water, and apply.
To Prevent Rusting. — Boiled linseed oil will keep pol-
ished tools from rusting if it is allowed to dry on them.
Common sperm oil will prevent them from rusting for a
short period. A coat of copal varnish is frequently ap-
plied to polished tools exposed to the weather.
Quick, Bright Dipping Acid, for Brass which has been
Ormolued. — Sulphuric acid, i gal. ; nitric acid, i gal.
Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric acid, 12 Ibs. ; nitric acid, i
pint ; nitre, 4 Ibs. ; soot, 2 handfuls ; brimstone, 2 oz.
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 247
-I ulverize the brimstone and soak it in water for an hour.
Add the nitric acid last.
Good Dipping Acid, for Cast Brass. — Sulphuric acid, i
qt. ; nitre, i qt. ; water, i qt. A little muriatic acid may
be added or omitted.
Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric acid, 4 gals. ; nitric acid, 2
gals. ; saturated solution of sulphate of iron (copperas), i
pt. ; solution of sulphate of copper, i qt.
Ormolu Dipping Acid, for Sheet Brass. — Sulphuric acid,
2 gals. ; muriatic acid, i pt. ; water, i pt. ; nitre, 12 Ibs.
Put in the muriatic acid last, a little at a time, and stir the
mixture with a stick.
Ormolu Dipping Acid, for Sheet or Cast Brass. — Sulphu-
ric acid, i gal. ; sal ammoniac, i oz. ; sulphur (in flour),
i oz. ; blue vitriol, i oz. ; saturated solution of zinc in
nitric acid, mixed with an equal quantity of sulphuric acid,
i gal.
To Prepare Brass Work for Ormolu Dipping. — If the
work is oily, boil it in lye ; and if it is finished work, filed
or turned, dip it in old acid, and it is then ready to be
ormolued ; but if it is unfinished, and free from oil, pickle
it in strong sulphuric acid, dip in pure nitric acid, and
then in the old acid, after which it will be ready for ormo-
luing.
To Repair Old Nitric Acid Ormolu Dips.—\i the work,
after dipping, appears coarse and spotted, add vitriol until
it answers the purpose. If the work, after dipping, appears
too smooth, add muriatic acid and nitre till it gives the
right appearance.
The other ormolu dips should be repaired according to
the recipes, putting in the proper ingredients to strengthen.
them. They should not be allowed to settle, but should
be stirred often while using.
Vinegar Bronze for Brass. — Vinegar, 10 gals. ; blue
248 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
vitriol, 3 Ibs.; muriatic acid, 3 Ibs. ; corrosive sublimate,
4 grs.; sal ammoniac, 2 Ibs.; alum, 8 oz.
Brown Bronze Dip. — Iron scales, i Ib. ; arsenic, i oz. ;
muriatic acid, i Ib. ; zinc (solid), i oz. Let the zinc be
kept in only while it is in use.
Green Bronze Dip. — Wine vinegar, 2 qts. ; verditer
green, 2 oz. ; sal ammoniac, i oz. ; salt, 2 oz. ; alum, one-
half oz. ; French berries, 8 oz. ; boil the ingredients to-
gether.
Aquafortis Bronze Dip. — Nitric acid, 8 oz. ; muriatic
acid, i qt. ; sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; alum, i oz. ; salt, 2 oz. ;
water, 2 gals. Add the salt after boiling the other ingre-
dients, and use it hot.
Olive Bronze Dip for Brass. — Nitric acid, 3 oz. ; mu-
riatic acid, 2 oz. ; add titanium or palladium ; when the
metal is dissolved, add 2 gals, pure soft water to each pint
of the solution.
Brown Bronze Paint for Copper Vessels. — Tincture of
steel, 4 oz. ; spirits of nitre, 4 oz. ; essence of dendi, 4
oz. ; blue vitriol, i oz. ; water, one-half pint. Mix in a
bottle. Apply it with a fine brush, the vessel being full of
boiling water ; varnish after the application of the bronze.
Bronze for All Kinds of Metals. — Muriate of ammonia
(sal ammoniac), 4 drachms ; oxalic acid, i dr. ; vinegar,
i pint. Dissolve the oxalic acid first. Let the work be
clean. Put on the bronze with a brush, repeating the op-
eration as many times as may be necessary.
Bronze Paint for Iron or Brass. — Chrome green, 2 Ibs.
ivory black, i oz. ; chrome yellow, i oz. ; good japan, i
gill. Grind all together and mix with linseed oil.
To Bronze Gun Barrels. — Dilute nitric acid with water
and rub the gun barrels with it ; lay them by for a few days,
then rub them with oil and polish them with beeswax.
Silvering by Heat. — Dissolve i oz. of silver in nitric
«cid; add a small quantity of salt ; then wash it and add
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 249
some sal ammoniac, or 6 oz. of salt and white vitriol ; also
one-quarter oz. of corrosive sublimate ; rub them together
till they form a paste ; rub the piece which is to be silvered
with the paste, heat it till the silver runs, after which dip
it in a weak vitriol pickle to clean it.
Mixture for Silvering. — Dissolve 2 oz. of silver with 3
grains of corrosive sublimate ; add tartaric acid, 4 Ibs ',
salt, 8 qts.
To Separate Silver from Copper. — Mix sulphuric acid, i
part; nitric acid, i part; water, i part; boil the metal in
the mixture till it is dissolved, and throw in a little salt to
cause the silver to precipitate.
Solvent for Gold. — Mix equal quantities of nitric and
muriatic acids.
Composition used in Welding Cast Steel. — Borax, 10; sal
ammoniac, i part. Grind or pound them roughly together;
then fuse them in a metal pot over a clear fire, taking care
to continue the heat until all scum has disappeared from
the surface. When the liquid appears clear, the composi-
tion is ready to be poured out to cool and concrete ; after-
wards, being ground to a fine powder, it is ready for use.
To use this composition, the steel to be welded is raised
to a heat which may be expressed by " bright-yellow." It
is then dipped among the welding powder, and again placed
in the fire until it attains the same degree of heat as before.
It is then ready to be placed under the hammer.
Cast-Iron Cement. — Clean borings, or turnings, of cast
iron, 1 6 ; sal ammoniac, 2 ; flour of sulphur, i part. Mix
them well together in a mortar and keep them dry. When
required for use, take of the mixture i ; clean borings, 20
parts. Mix thoroughly and add a sufficient quantity of
water. A little grindstone dust added improves the cement.
Beautiful and Durable Bronze upon Tin and Tin Alloys.
— After carefully cleansing the article from dirt and grease,
coat it lightly with a solution of i part of sulphate of cop-
250 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
per (blue vitriol), and i part of copperas, in 20 parts of
water, and after drying, with a solution of i part of verdi-
gris in 4 of vinegar. After again drying, impart lustre to
the article by rubbing with a soft brush dipped at first into
jewellers' rouge, and frequently breathing upon it. The
places in relief are then rubbed with a piece of soft leather
moistened with solution of wax in turpentine, and finally
rubbed with a dry leather.
Bronzing Gas Fixtures. — Boil the fixture in strong lye
and scour it free from all grease or old lacquer. Next
pickle it in dilute nitric acid till it is quite clean (not
bright) ; then dip in strong acid, and rinse through four
or five waters. Repeat the dipping, if necessary, till it is
bright. Next bind it very loose with thin iron wire, and
lay it in the strongest of the waters used for rinsing. This
will deposit a coat of copper all over it if the water or
pickle be not too strong ; if such is the case, the copper
will only be deposited just round where the wire touches.
When the copper is of sufficient thickness, wash the article
again in the waters and dry it with a brush in some hot
sawdust, boxwood dust being best ; but if this cannot be
had, oak, ash or beech will do. The fixture is now ready
for bronzing. The bronze is a mixture of black lead and
red bronze, varied according to the shade required, mixed
with boiling water. The work is to be painted over with
this, and dried ; then brushed until it polishes. If there
are any black spots or rings on the work, another coat of
the bronze will remove them. Lacquer the work with pale,
or but very-little-colored lacquer, for if it is of too deep a
color it will soon chip off.
Another Method is to mix vinegar or dilute sulphuric
acid (i acid to 12 water) with powdered black lead in a
saucer or open vessel. Apply this to the brass with a soft
brush by gentle brushing. This will soon assume a polish,
and is fit for lacquering. The brass must be made slightly
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 251
warmer than for lacquering only. The color, black 01
green, varies with the thickness of black lead.
To Bronze Plaster of Paris Figures. — Lay the figure over
with isinglass size, without, however, allowing any part of
its surface to become dry. Then, with a brush — such as is
termed by painters a sash tool — go over the whole, taking
care to remove, while it is yet soft, any part of the size that
may lodge on the delicate parts of the figure. When it is
dry, take a very little, thin, oil gold size, and with as much
as just dampens the brush go over the figure with it, allow-
ing no more to remain than causes it to shine. Set it aside
in a dry place free from smoke, and in 48 hours the figure
is ready to receive the bronze.
After having touched over the whole figure with the
bronze powder, let it stand another day, and then with a
soft dry brush rub off all the loose powder, particularly
from the more prominent parts.
To Cleanse Plaster of Paris Busts and Statuettes, — If it
is noc desired to bronze or paint them, the figures may be
cleansed by dipping them in a thick liquid starch and
drying, and when the starch is brushed off, the dirt is
brushed off with it.
Coppering of Iron Rollers for Calico Printing. — First
cleanse the iron cylinders with a concentrated alkaline lye,
then wash thoroughly in water and go over the whole sur-
face with the file. The surface is then very bright, and is
not to be touched with the finger or soiled with the breath.
It is then plunged into an alkaline bath composed of sul-
phate of copper i part, dissolved in water 1 2 parts ; cyan-
ide of potassium, 3 parts ; carbonate of soda, 4 parts ;
sulphate of soda, 2 parts, dissolved in water, 16 parts. Or,
ammonia, 3 parts ; acetate of copper, 2 parts, dissolved in
water 10 parts. The cylinder is allowed to remain 24
hours in one of these baths, subject to the action of a bat-
tery of four or six pairs, till the surface is coated with a
252 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
slender but firmly-adhering layer of copper. It is washed
and cleansed with pumice stone. If, in this operation, the
iron should be laid bare in any part, the cylinder must be
submitted to the alkaline bath anew. As soon as the coat-
ing of copper is uniform, it is washed in acidulated water
and immersed in an acid bath of sulphate of copper. This
bath is composed of solution of copper at 20° B., to which
3^3 of its volume of sulphuric acid is added to facilitate
the solution of some metallic copper, which is also im-
mersed in the bath for the purpose of maintaining the
solution in a uniform state of concentration. Here the cyl-
inder is left until the layer of copper has attained the de-
sired thickness, a galvanic current being kept up by a
battery of four pairs. If the temperature is between 60°
and 65° F., three to four weeks are required to produce a
deposit of ^3 inch in thickness. The cylinder is turned
one-quarter round daily, to change the portion of its sur-
face which faces the sheet of copper used as a positive
electrode.
To Tin Copper and Brass. — Boil 3 Ibs. of cream of
tartar, 4 Ibs. of granulated tin or tin shavings, and 2 gal-
lons of water. After boiling for a sufficient time, place the
articles to be tinned in the mixture, and the boiling being
continued, the tin is precipitated in its metallic form.
To Tin Iron Sauce-pans. — If the sauce-pan is an old
one, it must be put on the fire and allowed to get nearly red
hot, which will get rid of all the grease. Then make a
pickle of the following proportions : Sulphuric acid, one-
quarter Ib. ; muriatic acid, 2 oz. j water, i pt. If the
sauce-pan can be filled, so much the better; if not, keep
the pickle flowing over it for five minutes ; then rinse off
with water, scour well with sand or coke dust, and rinse
thoroughly with water. If the pan is clean, it will be of
a uniform gray color ; but if there are any red or black
spots, it must be pickled and scoured again until thoroughly
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 253
clean. Have ready chloride of zinc, z. <?., muriatic acid,
in which sheet zinc has been dissolved, some powdered sal
ammoniac, about 18 inches of iron rod about one-quarter
or three-eighths inch thick, one end flattened out and bent
up a little, and filed clean, and some bar tin. Dip a wisp
of taw in the chloride of zinc, then into the powdered sal
ammoniac, taking up a good quantity, and rub well all over
the inside. This must be done directly after the scouring,
for, if allowed to stand, it will oxidize. Now put the pan
over the fire until it is hot enough to melt tin, and then
brush the end of a bar of tin over the heated part until
melted. Rub the tin well over the surface with the flat-
tened end of the iron rod. Care should be had not to heat
too large a surface at once, nor to let it get too hot, which
may be known by the tin getting discolored, when some
dry sal ammoniac must be thrown in. Having gone all
over it, wipe lightly with a wisp of tow, made just warm
enough to prevent the tin from sticking to it. When cold,
scour well with sand and tow, rinsing with plenty of water.
Cold Tinning. — Block tin dissolved in muriatic acid
with a little mercury forms a very good amalgam for cold
tinning; or i part of tin, 2 of zinc, and 6 of mercury.
Mix the tin and mercury together until they form a soft
paste. Clean the metal to be tinned, taking care to free
it from greasiness. Then rub it with a piece of cloth
moistened with muriatic acid and immediately apply a
little of the amalgam to the surface, rubbing it with the
same rag. The amalgam will adhere to the surface and
thoroughly tin it. Cast-iron, wrought-iron, steel and
copper may be tinned in this manner. Those who find it
difficult to make soft solder adhere to iron with sal am-
moniac, will find no difficulty if they first tin the surfaces
in this manner, and then proceed as with ordinary tin
plate.
To Tin Small Articles. — Place them in warm water,
254 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
with a little sulphuric acid added to it, which will clean
them. Then powder some sal ammoniac, and mix it in
the water, stirring vigorously until all is dissolved. After
washing the articles in clean water, place them in the
solution for a few minutes and then place them near the
fire to dry. Procure a pan resembling a frying pan in
shape, the bottom of which must be full of small holes.
The pot for melting the tin must be large enough to admit
the pan for holding the articles. Cover the bottom of the
pan with the articles to be tinned, and after sprinkling a little
powdered sal ammoniac over the surface of the molten tin
to clear it from dross, dip the pan containing the articles
into it ; after all smoke has disappeared, lift it out and shake
well over the pot, sprinkling a little sal ammoniac over the
goods to prevent them from having too thick a coat, and
then cool them quickly in cold water to keep them bright.
Galvanizing Brass and Copper. — Copper and brass may
be coated with metallic zinc in the following way : Finely
divided zinc, in a non-metallic vessel, is covered with a
concentrated solution of sal ammoniac ; this is heated to
boiling, and the articles of copper or brass, properly cleansed,
are introduced. A few minutes then suffice to produce a
firm and brilliant coating. The requisite fineness of the
zinc is produced by pouring the melted metal into a mor-
tar and triturating it until it solidifies.
Cheap and Quick Method of Coloring Metals. — Metals
may be colored quickly and cheaply by forming on their
surface a coating of a thin film of a sulphide. In 5
minutes brass articles may be coated wkh any color vary-
ing from gold to copper red, then to carmine, dark red,
and from light aniline blue to a blue white, like sulphide
of lead, and at last a reddish white according to the thick-
ness of the coat, which depends on the length of time the
metal remains in the solution used. The colors possess a
very good lustre ; and if the articles to be colored have
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 255
been previously thoroughly cleansed by means of acid and
alkalies, they adhere so firmly that they may be operated
upon by the polishing steel.
To prepare the solution dissolve i^£ oz. of hyposul-
phite of soda in i Ib. of water, and add i^ oz. of acetate
of lead, dissolved in half a pound of water. When this
clear solution is heated to from 190° to 210° F., it decom-
poses slowly and precipitates sulphide of lead in brown
flakes. If metal be now present, a part of the sulphide of
lead is deposited thereon, and according to the thickness
of the deposited sulphide of lead, the above-mentioned
colors are produced. To produce an even coloring, the
articles must be evenly heated. Iron treated with this
solution takes a steel-blue color ; zinc a brown color ; in
the case of copper objects, the first gold color does not
appear.
If, instead of the acetate of lead, an equal weight of
sulphuric acid is added to the hyposulphite of soda, and
the process carried on as before, the brass is covered with
a very beautiful red, which is followed by a green (which
is not in the first mentioned scale of colors), and changes
finally to a splendid brown with green and red iris glitter.
This last is a very durable coating. Very beautiful marble
designs can be produced by using a lead solution, thickened
with gum tragacanth, on brass which has been heated to
210° F., and is afterwards treated by the usual solution of
sulphide of lead. The solution may be used several times.
Electroplating Pewter Surfaces. — Take i oz. of nitric
acid and drop pieces of copper in it until effervescence
ceases ; then add one-half oz. of water, and the solution is
ready for use. Place a few drops of the solution on the
desired surface and touch it with a piece of steel, and there
will be a beautiful film of copper deposited. The appli-
cation may be repeated, if necessary, though once is gen-
erally sufficient. The article must now be washed and
256 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
immediately placed in the plating bath, when deposition
will take place with perfect ease.
Brown Tint for Iron and Steel. — Dissolve in 4 parts of
water, 2 of crystallized chloride of iron, 2 of chloride
of antimony, and i of gallic acid, and apply the solu-
tion with a sponge or cloth to the article, and dry it in
the air. Repeat this any number of times, according to
the depth of color which it is desired to produce. Wash
with water and dry, and finally rub the articles over with
boiled linseed oil. The metal thus receives a brown tint
and resists moisture. The chloride of antimony should be
as little acid as possible.
Enamelling Metals. — Enamel is simply glass, composed
of lead and sand. When transparent, oxide of tin renders
the transparent glass opaque ; mixed with oxide of gold it
changes the clear or opaque glass into purple ; red is pro-
duced by the addition of sulphate of iron ; oxide of copper
produces green ; violet is produced by manganese, and blue
by oxide of cobalt.
The enamel is poured from the crucible in which it is
melted into flat cakes. These cakes are broken up and re-
duced to a fine granular condition in a mortar, or to a fine
impalpable powder by grinding with a muller on a slab.
It is applied on metal which will stand a red heat without
changing its form or fusing. Gold, silver, copper, brass
or iron can be enamelled. There is no true enamel which
has not been fused at a red heat. The modes of applica-
tion vary. Applied on a flat plate, or plaque, it is worked
with a brush. Of this class are the Limoges enamels.
Other methods of application consist in incising or cutting
small troughs in the surface of the metallic object intended
to be enamelled. In these the enamel is placed or applied.
This method is called the champ-leve. Another method of
reproducing is by means of electro-deposition.
The next variety of enamels is the partitioned or clois-
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 257
sonne ; in this variety the cells are formed by bending a flat
narrow strip of metal, in such a manner as to constitute the
retaining walls. These, after being prepared, are arranged
on the object and soldered to it. The various colors of
enamel are then applied in the cells, and fired by subject-
ing the object to be enamelled to the heat of a muffle.
Repeated applications of enamel with repeated firings are
required to fill the cells. The superfluous enamel is finally
removed by grinding it away with pumice stone, and
smoothing it with "stones of different degrees of fineness.
Apart from the labor of forming and placing the minute
cells, there are difficulties attending the firing operation.
Should one part of the muffle be too hot, and the solder
become melted which holds the cells, the colors mingle,
and the more so, the more the enamel is in a fluid condition,
and a confluent mixture of colors is the result.
Enamel for Watch Faces. — The faces are prepared with
a backing of sheet-iron, having raised edges to receive the
enamel in powder, which is fused. After cooling, the
lettering and figuring are printed on the plate with soft
black enamel by transferring, the plate being then again
placed in a muffle to fuse the enamel of the lettering or
figuring. The enamel used is composed of white lead,
arsenic, flint glass, saltpetre, borax, and ground flint
reduced to powder, fused and formed into cakes and
ground up for use.
To Polish Gold and Silver Lace. — Treat i^£ oz. of
shellac, half a drachm of dragon's blood, and half a
drachm of turmeric root with strong alcohol and decant the
ruby-red-colored solution. The objects to be restored or
brightened (either gold lace, spangles, clasps or knobs)
are then brushed over with some of the color by a camel's-
hair brush, and then a hot flat iron is passed over, so that
the objects shall only be gently warmed. Gold embroidery
is treated in the same manner. Detached gold knobs are
17
258 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
fastened on a stand, brushed over with the color, and then
dried over red-hot coals, with the above-mentioned pre-
caution. Silver lace or embroidery is polished with a
powder obtained as follows : Alabaster is strongly heated
and while hot is placed in corn whiskey. A white powder
is obtained, which is gently heated over the flame of a
spirit lamp. The powder is placed in a linen bag and the
lace, etc., are dusted over with it, and then brushed off.
Cleaning Tinware. — Ordinary tinware is made of sheet-
iron, coated with tin. Acids should never be employed
to clean such articles, because they attack the metal and
remove it from the iron. Rub the articles to be cleaned
first with rotten stone and sweet oil, then finish with whit-
ing and a piece of soft leather. Articles made of solid tin
should be cleaned in the same manner. In a dry atmos-
phere planished tin will remain bright for a long period,
but it soon becomes tarnished in moist air.
Solvents for Rubber. — The proper solvents for caoutchouc
are ether (free from alcohol), chloroform, bisulphide of car-
bon, coal naphtha and rectified oil of turpentine. By long
boiling in water, rubber softens, swells and becomes more
soluble in its peculiar menstruum ; but when exposed to the
air, it speedily resumes its pristine consistency and volume.
Industrially, the ethereal solution of caoutchouc is useless
because it contains hardly more than a trace of that sub-
stance. Oil of turpentine dissolves caoutchouc only when
the oil is very pure and with the application of heat. The
ordinary oil of turpentine of commerce causes India rubbei
to swell rather than to become dissolved. In order to pre-
vent the viscosity of the India rubber when evaporated
from its solution, i part of caoutchouc is worked up with
2 parts of turpentine into a thin paste, to which is added
half a part of a hot concentrated solution of sulphuret of
potassium in water ; the yellow liquid formed leaves the
caoutchouc perfectly elastic and without any viscosity.
MISCELLANEOUS EECEIPTtS. 259
The solutions of caoutchouc in coal tar, naphtha and
benzine are most suited to unite pieces of caoutchouc, but
the odor of the solvents is perceptible for a long time. A
chloroform is too expensive for common use, sulphide of
carbon is the most usual and also the best solvent foi
caoutchouc. This solution, owing to the volatility of the
menstruum, soon dries, leaving the rubber in its natural
state. When alcohol is mixed with sulphide of carbon,
the latter does no longer dissolve the caoutchouc, but
simply softens it and renders it capable of being more
readily vulcanized. Alcohol also precipitates solutions
of caoutchouc. When caoutchouc is treated with hot
naphtha distilled from native petroleum or coal tar, it
swells to thirty times its former bulk ; and if then tritu-
rated with a pestle and pressed through a sieve, it affords a
homogeneous varnish, the same that is used in preparing
the patent water-proof cloth of Mackintosh. Caoutchouc
dissolves in the fixed oils, such as linseed oil, but the var-
nish has not the property of becoming concrete on ex-
posure to the air. Caoutchouc melts at a heat of about
256° or 260° F. ; after it has been melted it does not
solidify on cooling, but forms a sticky mass which does not
become solid even when exposed to the air for months.
Owing to this property it forms a valuable material for the
lubrication of stop-cocks and joints intended to remain
air-tight and yet be movable.
Etching Solution for Brass. — Prepare a mixture of 8
parts of nitric acid (of specific gravity 1.40), and further-
more dissolve 3 parts of potassium chlorate in 50 parts of
water. Mix the two fluids thus obtained, and use the
mixture for etching. For covering the ordinary etching
ground is used.
Compound for Casts. — A compound said to present a
beautiful, semi-transparent white appearance, well suited
for forming casts of fancy articles, consists of unbaked
260 TIN, SHEET-IKON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
gypsum 2 parts; bleached beeswax i, and paraffine r.
This compound becomes plastic at a temperature of about
120° F., and articles cast from it retain a certain degree
of toughness, owing to the beeswax contained in them.
Imitation Gold Varnish. — As a substitute for the ex-
pensive "gold varnish" used on ornamental tinware, the
following compound has been proposed : Turpentine half
a gallon ; asphaltum half a gill ; yellow aniline 2 ozs. ;
umber 4 ozs. ; turpentine varnish i gal., and gamboge
half a pound, mixed and boiled for 10 hours. This, it is
said, will have as good an effect as the gold varnish, and is
very cheap.
Ink for Marking Tinware. — A good ink for marking tin-
ware is made by reducing asphalt or black varnish with
turpentine to the desired consistency. It is to be kept in a
corked bottle. When wanted for use the bottle is shaken,
when the cork can be withdrawn and held varnish side up,
and the pen filled from the varnish on the cork. The ink
is recommended for marking cutlery and other bright arti-
cles as well as tinware. It can be removed by means of
rag dipped in coal oil or turpentine.
Another Ink can be made by reducing shellac varnish
with alcohol, and adding a sufficient quantity of the
finest lamp black. This forms a jet black, lustreless ink,
which is insoluble in water, but can be removed by a drop
of alcohol. It should be kept in a tightly corked bottle,
and can be reduced at any time by adding alcohol.
The following is recommended for marking on tin plates:
Mix together without the use of heat, i part of pine soot
with 60 parts of solution of nitrate of copper in water.
Red Ink for Rubber Stamps. — Pour over 45 parts of an-
iline red 150 parts of boiling water, stir the mixture, and
after allowing it to stand for some time, strain off the su-
pernatant clear fluid. To the sediment add as much glycer-
ine as necessary, to give it the desired consistency.
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 261
Ink for Brass Stamps. — Dissolve 16 parts of aniline
(red, blue, etc.) in 80 parts of boiling water, and then add
with vigorous stirring 7 parts of glycerine and 3 of mo-
lasses.
Indelible Ink for Stamps. — Mix intimately 16 parts of
linseed oil varnish, 6 of the finest quality of lamp black,
and 5 of chloride of iron.
Resharpening Files. — Well-worn files are first carefully
cleaned with hot water and soda ; they are then placed in
connection with the positive pole of a battery, in a bath
composed of 40 parts of sulphuric acid and 1,000 of
water. The negative is formed of a copper spiral sur-
rounding the files, but not touching them ; the coil termin-
ates in a wire which rises towards the surface. When the
files have been in the bath 10 minutes, they are taken out,
washed and dried, when the whole of the hollows will be
found to have been attacked in a very sensible manner ;
but should the effect not be sufficient, they are replaced in
the bath for the same period as before. Sometimes two
operations are necessary, but seldom more. The files thus
treated are to all appearances like new ones, and are said
to be good for 60 hours' work. Twelve medium Bunsen
elements are employed for the batteries.
To Repair Broken Belting. — Broken belting can be re-
united by the use of chrome glue. With a lap of 4 or 5
inches, the reunited part is apparently as firm as any part
of the band, though it is well to take the precaution to
tack down the ends of the lapped pieces with a few stitches
of stout thread. The chrome glue is prepared as follows :
Take 100 parts glue, soaked 12 hours in water, then pour
off the remaining water, melt the glue, add 2 per cent, of
glycerine and 3 per cent, of red chromate of potash, melt-
ing them with the glue. This mixture, thinned by warm-
ing, is applied to the lapped ends after having been rough-
ened with a rasp, and then placed between two hard wood
262 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
strips in a vice and well pressed. Leave the lapped ends
for 24 hours in the vice to become thoroughly dried.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Bar of Iron. — The average breaking weight of a bar of
wrought iron, i inch square, is 25 tons ; its elasticity is
destroyed, however, by about two-fifths of that weight, or
10 tons. It is extended within the limits of its elasticity,
.000096, or one-tenthousandth part of an inch for every
ton of strain per square inch of sectional area. Hence,
the greatest constant load should never exceed one-fifth of
its breaking weight or 5 tons for every square inch of sec-
tional area.
The lateral strength of wrought iron, as compared with
cast iron is as 14 to 9. Mr. Barlow finds that wrought iron
bars, 3 inches deep, 11.2 inches thick, and 33 inches be-
tween the supports, will carry 4^ tons.
Bridges. — The greatest extraneous load on a square foot
is about 1 20 pounds.
Floors. — The least load on a square foot is about 160
pounds.
Roofs. — Covered with slate, on a square foot, 51^
pounds.
Beams. — When a beam is supported in the middle and
loaded at each end, it will bear the same weight as when
supported at both ends and loaded in the middle; that is,
each end will bear half the weight.
Cast Iron Beams should not be loaded to more than one-
fifth of their ultimate strength.
The strength of similar beams varies inversely as their
lengths; that is, if a beam 10 feet long will support 1,000
pounds, a similar beam 20 feet long would support only
500 pounds.
A beam supported at one end will sustain only one-fourth
part the weight which it would if supported at both ends.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 26A
When a beam is fixed at both ends, and loaded in the
middle, it will bear one-half more than it will when loose
at both ends. When the beam is loaded uniformly through-
out it will bear double. When the beam is fixed at both
ends, and loaded uniformly, it will bear triple the weight.
In any beam standing obliquely, or in a sloping direc-
tion, its strength or strain will be equal to that of a beam
of the same breadth, thickness, and material, but only of
the length of the horizontal distance between the points
of support.
In the construction of beams, it is necessary that their
form should be such that they will be equally strong
throughout. If a beam be fixed at one end, and loaded
at the other, and the breadth uniform throughout its
length, then, that the beam may be equally strong through-
out, its form must be that of a parabola. This form is
generally used in the beams of steam engines.
When a beam is regularly diminished towards the points
that are least strained, so that all the sections are similar
figures, whether it be supported at each end and loaded in
the middle, or supported in the middle and loaded at each
end, the outline should be a cubic parabola.
When a beam is supported at both ends, and is of the
same breadth throughout, then, if the load be uniformly
distributed throughout the length of the beam, the line
bounding the compressed side should be a semi-ellipse.
The same form should be made use of for the rails of a
wagon-way, where they have to resist the pressure of a load
rolling over them.
Similar plates of the same thickness, either supported at
the ends or all round, will carry the same weight, either
uniformly distributed or laid on similar points, whatever be
their extent.
The lateral strength of any beam, or bar of wood, stone,
metal, etc., is in proportion to its breadth multiplied by
264 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
two-thirds of its depth. In square beams the lateral
strengths are in proportion to the cubes of the sides, and
in general of like-sided beams as the cubes of the similar
sides of the section.
The lateral strength of any beam or bar, one end being
fixed in the wall and the other projecting, is inversely as
the distance of the weight from the section acted upon ;
and the strain upon any section is directly as the distance
of the weight from that section.
The absolute strength of ropes or bars, pulled lengthwise,
is in proportion to the squares of their diameters. All
cylindrical or prismatic rods are equally strong in every
part, if they are equally thick; but if not, they will break
where the thickness is least.
The strength of a tube, or hollow cylinder, is to the strength
of a solid one as the difference between the fourth powers
of the exterior and the interior diameters of the tube, di-
vided by the exterior diameter, is to the cube of the diam-
eter of a solid cylinder— the quantity of matter in each
being the same. Hence, from this it will be found, that a
hollow cylinder is one-half stronger than a solid one having
the same weight of material.
The strength of a column to resist being crushed is di-
rectly as the square of the diameter, provided it is not so
long as to have a chance of bending. This is true in metals
or stone, but in timber the proportion is rather greater than
the square.
Models Proportioned to Machines. — The relation of mod-
els to machines, as to strength, deserves the particular
attention of the mechanic. A model may be perfectly
proportioned in all its parts as a model ; yet the machine,
if constructed in the same proportion, will not be suffi-
ciently strong in every part ; hence, particular attention
should be paid to the kind of strain the different parts are
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 266
exposed to ; and from the statements which follow, the
proper dimensions of the structure may be determined.
If the strain to draw asunder in the model be i, and if
the structure is 8 times larger than the model, then the
stress on the structure will be 8^ equal 512. If the
structure is 6 times as large as the model, then the stress
on the structure will be 6^ equal 216, and so on; there-
fore, the structure will be much less firm than the model ;
and this the more, as the structure is cube times greater
than the model. If we wish to determine the greatest size
we can make a machine of which we have a model, we
have —
The greatest weight which the beam of the model can
bear, divided by the weight which it actually sustains, equals
a quotient which, when multiplied by the size of the beam
in the model, will give the greatest possible size of the
same beam in the structure.
Ex. — If a beam in the model be 7 inches long, and bears
a weight of 4 Ibs., but is capable of bearing a weight of 26
Ibs., what is the greatest length which we can make the
corresponding beam in the structure ? Here
26 -i- 4 = 6.5 ; therefore, 6.5 X 7 = 45-5 inches.
The strength, to resist crushing, increases from a model
to a structure, in proportion to their size ; but, as above,
the strain increases as the cubes ; wherefore, in this case,
also, the model will be stronger than the machine, and the
greatest size of the structure will be found by employing
the square root of the quotient in the last rule, instead of
the quotient itself; thus :
If the greatest weight which the column in a model can
bear is 3 cwt., and if it actually bears 28 Ibs. ; then, if
the column be 18 inches high, we have :
v' (Vg6) = 3-464; wherefore 3.464 X 18 = 62.352
inches, the length of the column in the structure. .
List of Metals, arranged according to their Strength, —
266 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Steel, wrought iron, cast iron, platinum, silver, copper,
brass, gold, tin, bismuth, zinc, antimony, and lead.
According to Tredgold's and Duleau's experiments, a
piece of the best bar iron i square inch across the end,
would bear a weight of about 77,363 Ibs., while a similar
piece of cast iron would be torn asunder by a weight of
from 16,243 to 19>4&4 Ibs. Thin iron wires, arranged
parallel to each other, and presenting a surface at their
extremity of i square inch, will carry a mean weight of
126,340 Ibs.
List of Woods, Arranged According to their Strength. —
Oak, alder, lime, box, pine (jry/p.), ash, elm, yellow pine,
and fir.
A piece of well-dried pine wood, presenting a section of
i square inch, is able, according to Eytelwein, to support
a weight of from 15,646 Ibs. to 20,408 Ibs., whilst a similar
piece of oak will carry as much as 25,850 Ibs.
Hempen cords, twisted, will support the following weights
to the square inch of their section :
One-quarter to one inch thick, 8,746 Ibs. ; i to 3 inches
thick, 6,800 Ibs. ; 3 to 5 inches thick, 5,345 Ibs. ; 5 to 7
inches thick, 4,860 Ibs.
Tredgold gives the following rule for finding the weight
in pounds which a hempen rope will be capable of support-,
ing : Multiply the square of the circumference in inches
by 200, and the product will be the quantity sought.
In the practical application of these measures of abso-
lute strength, that of metals should be reckoned at one-
half, and that of woods and cords at one-third of their
estimated value.
In a parallelopipedon of uniform thickness, supported
on two points and loaded in the middle, the lateral strength
is directly as the product of the breadth into the square oj the
depth, and inversely as the length. Let W represent the
lateral strength of any material, estimated by the weight^
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 267
b the breadth, and d the depth of its end, and / the dis-
tance between the points of support ; then W= fd^b -5- 4 /.
If the parallelopipedon be fastened only at one end in a
horizontal position, and the load be applied at the opposite
end, W = fd*& -H 4/.
It is to be observed that the three dimensions, b d and /,
are to be taken in the same measure, and that b be "so great
that no lateral curvature arise from the weight ; f in each
formula represents the lateral strength, which Varies in dif-
ferent materials, and which must be learned experimentally.
A beam having a rectangular end, whose breadth is two
or three times greater than the breadth of another beam,
has a power of suspension respectively two or three times
greater than it ; if the end be two or three times deeper
than the end of the other, the suspension power of that
which has the greater depth exceeds the suspension power
of the other four or nine times ; if its length be two or
three times greater than the length of another beam, its
power of suspension will be one-half and one-third, respec-
tively, that of the other ; provided, that in each case, the
mode of suspension, the position of the weight, and other
circumstances be similar. Hence it follows that a beam,
one of whose sides tapers, has a greater power of suspen-
sion if placed on the slant than on the broad side, and that
the powers of suspension in both cases are in the ratio of
their sides ; so, for instance, a beam, one of whose sides
is double the width of the other, will carry twice as much
if placed on a narrow side, as it would if laid on the
wide one.
In a piece of round timber (a cylinder) the power of sus-
pension is in proportion to the diameters cubed, and in-
versely as the length ; thus a beam with a diameter two or
three times longer than that of another, will carry a weight
of 8 or 27 times heavier, respectively, than that whose
268 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
diameter is unity, the mode of fastening and loading it
being similar in both cases.
The lateral strength of square timber is to that of a tree
whence it is hewn as 10 : 17 nearly.
A considerable advantage is frequently secured by using
hollow cylinders instead of solid ones, which, with an equal
expenditure of materials, have far greater strength, provided
only that the solid part of the cylinder be of a sufficient
thickness, and that the workmanship be good ; especially
that in cast metal beams the thickness be uniform, and the
metal free from flaws. According to Eytelwein, such hol-
low cyliders are to solid ones of equal weight of metal, as
1.212 : i, when the inner semi-diameters are to the outer as
1:2; according to Tredgold as 17: 10, when the two semi-
diameters are to each other as 15 : 25 ; and as 2:1, when
they are to each other as 7 : 10.
A method of increasing the suspensive power of timber
supported at both ends, is to saw down from one-third to
one-half of its depth, and forcibly drive in a wedge of
metal or hard wood, until the timber is slightly raised at
the middle out of the horizontal line. By experiment it
was found that the suspensive power of a beam thus cut
one-third of its depth was increased i-igih, when cut one-
half it was increased i-29th, and when cut three-fourths
through it was increased i-87th.
The force required to crush a body increases as the sec-
tion of the body increases ; and this quantity being con-
stant, the resistance of the body diminishes as the height
increases.
According to Eytelwein's experiments, the strength of
columns or timbers of rectangular form in resisting com-
pression is as :
i. The cube of their thickness (the lesser dimension of
their section). 2. As the breadth (the greater dimension
of their section). 3. Inversely as the square of their length.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 269
Cohesive Power of Bars of Metal One Inch Square, in Tons.
Iron' Russian bar
16 23
Ir n' En 1' h bar" '
8 si
Steel cast . .
. "CQ.Q3
Brass, cast, yellow . . .
8.01
Steel blistered
eg A-2
Iron, cast
.... 7.87
Steel, sheer. . .
...;6.Q7
Tin, cast. . .
.. 2.11
Relative Strength of Cast and Malleable Iron. — It has
been found, in the course of the experiments made by Mr.
Hodgkinson and Mr. Fairbairn, that the average strain
that cast iron will bear in the way of tension, before break-
ing, is about 7^ tons per square inch ; the weakest in the
course of sixteen trials, on various descriptions, bearing 6
tons, and the strongest 9^ tons. The experiments of
Telford and Brown show that malleable iron will bear, on
an average, 27 tons ; the weakest bearing 24, and the
strongest 29 tons. On approaching the breaking point,
cast iron may snap in an instant, without any previous
symptom, while wrought iron begins to stretch, with half
its breaking weight, and so continues to stretch till it breaks.
The experiments of Hodgkinson and Fairbairn show also
that cast iron is capable of sustaining compression to the
extent of nearly 50 tons on the square inch — the weakest
bearing 36^ tons, and the strongest 60 tons. In this re-
spect, malleable iron is much inferior to cast iron. With
12 tons on the square inch it yields, contracts in length,
and expands laterally ; though it will bear 27 tons, or more,
without actual fracture.
Method of Testing Metals — The method is, in general, as
follows : Cut from the bar or mass to be tested, pieces
about 3^ or 4 inches long, and turn them off in the mid-
dle to a diameter of one-half inch fox iron and brass, and
three-eighths if of steel ; make this- neck i inch long. A
square head is left at each end. Secure the piece vertically
and firmly by one end in a strong vise ; fit a solid-ended
wrench to the other end of the test-piece : and to the ex-
270 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
tremity of the handle — which should be, for convenience,
about five feet long — attach a spring-balance capable of
recording with accuracy up to 50 or 60 Ibs.
Paint the scale of the balance with white lead or tallow,
and spring the pointer so as to just touch the painted sur-
face. The mark traced by the pointer then indicates the
maximum force applied.
Commence pulling steadily on the balance, keeping the
direction of pull at right angles to the wrench-handle.
An apparently unyielding resistance will be felt up to a
certain point, when the test-piece will commence observ-
ably to give way. Note the indication of the spring-
balance at this point, which is the limit of elasticity, and
record both that reading and, if possible, the distance
through which the piece has twisted — the latter measure
being an indication of its stiffness. Continue twisting the
piece until it has gone some distance beyond the limit of
its elasticity ; then stop and notice how far the arm springs
back while gradually taking off the twisting force.
This distance is a measure of the elasticity of the metal,
and is usually, if not invariably, the same, however great the
set, even up to the point of rupture.
Renew the twisting force and break off the piece, noting
the maximum angle which the piece has been twisted
through and the maximum resistance, as indicated by the
spring-balance.
The stiffness of the metal is measured by the force re-
quired to twist it through the first small angle, say 5°,
should it yield so far without set. For one-half inch iron,
this should be about 50 Ibs., on the end of a lever five feet
long. For tool steel it should be about 30 Ibs. , where the
neck has a diameter of three-eighths inch.
The limit of elasticity is determined by the force required
to give it its earliest set.
The degree of elasticity is measured by the distance
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 271
through which the wrench springs back when the force is
removed after producing set.
The ultimate tensile strength is approximately propor-
tioned to the force producing rupture by torsion.
The limit of elasticity for tensile strength is proportioned
to the force producing set by torsion.
The ductility of the metal is measured by the angle through
which the piece twists before breaking.
The power of resisting shock, or resilience, as it is called
by engineers, is nearly proportioned to the product ob-
tained by multiplying the breaking force by the maximum
angle of torsion.
The homogeneity of the metal is determined by the regu-
larity with which the resistance of the piece increases when
passing its limit of elasticity.
By taking samples of well-known brands of metals, and
pursuing this course, a standard is easily obtained, by refer-
ence to which a little practice will enable the experimenter
to learn readily, and quite accurately, the relative value of
such other metals as he wishes to test. Next, taking the
fractured pieces, a careful inspection will assist in pro-
nouncing a correct judgment.
TABLES OF STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Strength of Chains.
Common Close-linked Cable Chain.
Material.
1
•^
Breaking weight, in tons.
Maxim im.
Minimum.
Mean.
•
1
I
N
r
Wrought iron
I
ft
'A
%
1.8
4-4
6.8
8.4
13.0
14-9
16.5
21.4
27.5
38.6
3S-o
52.0
63.5
1.40
3.00
6.15
7.50
11.20
I4.OO
I5-25
19-5
2I.O
26.O
28.5
35-o
55-5
1.60
3.78
6.48
7.91
12.10
14-45
I5-87
2O.OO
25-H
3I.8I
3I-30
46.19
00.62
16.32
17.12
21.55
20.15
19.72
18.46
17.96
19.86
20.90
20.15
17.66
18.82
17.15
«,
„
<«
„
Steel-linked Cable Chain.
Wrought iron
U
9.58
15.60
3/
11. 51
15 30
««
V
180
ic.e
l6.7?
18 QI
„
%
27.0
2O.O
22 75
18 QI
„
%
20 38
1 6 90
" annealed ....
" not annealed .
1
20.25
21.75
77 e
ig.O
20.5
1,2 S
19-65
21.10
74 2O
16.34
17-54
21 77
„
T
24 2?
jc 40
„
,
•? 4 e
26 o
7O 7O
IQ *\4.
"<
" Lowmoor ....
I#
41.25
20.75
(272)
STKENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Table Continued.
273
Material.
ti
c
5
i#
*y*
I>2
i^r
'K
i?4
134
1^
2
2^
2X
IH
:p
;|
i^
Breaking weight, in tons.
Maximum.
Minimum.
Mean.
•
§
I .
g/g
pS
IT
Wrought iron, Trinity
94.0
90.7
83-6
IOO.O
123.0
'33-o
83.0
82.5
72.2
74.0
100.7
"9-5
40.38
41.50
59.58
74.12
88.50
84.50
80.10
84.53
92.88
99-54
113.90
125.20
41-00
39-75
29-75
37-75
33-0
35-0
20.31
20.87
16.90
15.40
18.40
17.56
16.65
17.75
16.80
15.80
16.60
15-74
20.62
20.00
I4.96
18.98
1 6.60
I7.6l
„
,,
««
««
„
Puddled steel Firth's.
Howell's
" Mersey
Mild steel
Cast steel, Mushet's
" Bessemer
Strength and Weight of Short-linked Crane Chain.
Diameter
in
Inches.
Breaking
weight,
tons.
Admiralty
proof-strain,
tons.
Maximum
safe-strain,
tons.
Working-
strain for
Cranes, etc.,
tons.
Weight per
fathom,
Ibs.
#....
1.87
•75
.56
•37
4-5
T\' • • •
2-93
1.17
.88
.58
6.0
y%- • -•
4.22
1.69
1.26
.84
10.5
rV
5-74
2.30
1.72
1.15
12.0
¥••••
7-50
3.00
2.25
1.50
18.0
9-49
3-8o
2.84
1.90
21.0
yi- • • •
11.72
4.69
3-51
2-34
27-9
•H • • • •
14.18
5-67
4.25
2.83
31-3
H-"'
16.87
6-75
5-06
2-37
36
if----
19.80
7.92
5-94
3.96
42
18
274 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Table Continued.
Diameter
in
Inches.
Breaking
weight,
tons.
Admiralty
proof-strain,
tons.
Maximum
safe-strain,
tons.
Working-
strain for
Cranes, etc.,
tons.
Weight per
fathom,
Ibs.
«....
22.97
9.19
6.89
4-59
50
H ....'.
26.37
10-55
7.91
5-27
57
i ....
30.00
I2.0O
9.00
6.00
65
1 T J • • • •
33-87
13-54
10.16
6-77
73
iy& • • •
37-97
15.18
"•39
7-59
82
IA....
42.30
16.92
12.69
8.46
91
i)l....
46-87
18.75
14.06
9-37
IOI
iT5j ....
51.68
20.67
I5-50
10.33
no
i ^ ....
56.72
22.68
17.01
"•34
120
!•&.•. ..
62.00
24.80
1 8. 60
12.40
130
1/2....
67.50
27.00
20.25
I3-50
140
Ratios =
5-o
2.0 1.5
1.0
Strength and Weight of Steel-linked Cable Chait
Diameter
in
Inches.
Breaking
weight,
tons.
Admiralty
proof-strain,
tons.
Maximum
safe-strain,
tons.
Weight per
fathom,
Ibs.
%
6-75
8 u
4.50
2.25
2 8d
15
ft
10.55
12 76
7-03
8 "?2
3-51
4.25
24
28
I?
i<; 18
IO IO
S 06
•?2
}!•••••'•'
17.82
20.67
23-73
11.9
13-9
15-8
18 o
5-94
6.89
7.91
37
44
49
eg
IV,...
30.48
22.9
11.45
72
*x
'#
iy*
i#
i*r
i^. ......
2 +.
2%
42.19
51-05
60.75
71-30
82.68
94.92
108.00 .
121.92
28.1
34-1
40.6
47.6
55-4
63-3
72.0
81.3
14.05
17-05
20.30
23-8
27.7
31.6
36.0
40.6
90
no
125
H5
170
195
230
256
2>/..
136.68
91.2
45.6
285
23^.. .
141.75
101.7
50.8
•?2O
2}4 ... .
168.75
112.5
56.2
360
Ratios = . .
3
2
,
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
275
Strength of Iron Wire Ropes.
Circumference.
Breaking
weight,
Working
load,
Weight per
fathom,
cwt.
cwt.
Ibs.
I
40
6
I
1^5
80
12
2
ij4
1 20
18
3
2}i
1 60
24
4
1%
200
240
3°
36
i
2j£
280
42
7
3/1
320
48
8
3/^
400
60
10
3%
480
72
12
4
560
84
14
640
96
16
4f6
800
120
20
Sues. Flat Wire Ropes.
2X x y*
400
44
II
2%xH
540
60
IS
3% Xtt
640
72
18
3% X H
800
88
22
4Xxk
1,000
112
28
1,200
136
34
Strength and Weight of Hempen Ropes.
Weight
Ropes made with Register.
Girth in
Inches.
per
fathom,
Ibs
Breaking
weight,
Proof
strain,
Safe loads, cwt.
cwt.
cwt.
Ordinary.
Hoists, etc.
»#
0.50
16.5
5-5
4.1
2.4
2
0.88
29-3
9-8
7-3
4-9
2^
1.38
45-7
15.2
11.4
7.6
3
1.98
66
22
16.5
1 1.0
3#
2.70
90
3°
22.5
15.0
4
3-52
117
39
29.2
19-5
4K
4-46
148
49
37-0
24.7
^
5-50
183
61
45-7
30.5
5^
6.66
221
70
55-2
37-o
6
8.00
263
88
66
44.0
6^
9-3
3°9
103
77
5»-5
7
10.8
358
119
89
59-7
276 TIN. SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Table Continued.
"\xr • -i .
Ropes made with Register.
Girth in
Inches.
Weight
per
fathom,
IKt?
Breaking
weight,
Proof
strain,
Safe loads, cwt.
IDS.
cwt.
cwt.
Ordinary.
Hoists, etc.
r/^
124
412
'37
103
69
8
14.1
468
156
117
78
9
17-8
593
198
148
99
10
22.0
732
244
183
122
II
26.6
886
295
221
144
12
31-7
1054
35i
264
176
Hand-laid Ropes.
I#
O.5O
"•3
3-8
2.8
i-9
2
o 88
2O.O
6.7
5.0
3-3
2^
1.38
3i 3
10.4
7-8
5-2
3
1.98
45.1
15.0
"•3
7-5
3X
2.70
60.6
2O.2
15.1
IO.I
4
3-52
78
26.O
19-5
13.0
4K
4.46
92
30-7
23.0
15-3
55K
5-5°
6.66
118
138
39-3
46
29-5
34-5
19.7
23.0
6
8.00
162
54
40.5
27.0
6^
9-3
183
61
45-7
30.5
7
10.8
205
68
5i-2
34-1
7X
12.4
223
74
56.0
37-2
8
14.1
240
80
60.0
40.0
Ratios.
6
2
i-5
T
Strength of Drawn Lead Pipes of the Ordinary Standard
Weights.
1
K
1
.H
.0881
.1067
•1356
.1486
.1060
Weight in Ibs.
Pressure in feet of Water.
Per 15
feet.
12
15
2O
22
18
Per
foot.
Bursting.
Working head.
Ordinary.
With
shock.
~1T
IOO
118
126
82
0.800
1. 000
1-330
1.467
I.2OO
1700
1978
2367
2525
1649
170
198
236
252
165
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
277
Table Continued.
Diameter.
C
IS
H
Weight in Ibs.
Pressure in feet of Water.
Per 15
feet.
Per
foot.
Bursting.
Working head.
Ordinary.
With
shock.
&
.1264
22
1.467
1898
190
95
H
•1503
27
1.800
2169
217
108
%
.1105
22
1.467
1466
147
73
5!
.1236
•1365
25
28
1.667
1.867
1610
1745
161
'74
So
87
*
•1525
32
2.133
1906
191
96
.1695
36
2.400
2068
207
104
^
.1810
39
2.600
2173
217
109
i
•1370
36
2.400
1378
138
69
i
•1570
42
2.800
1545
155
78
i
.2010
56
3-733
1888
189
95
per 12 ft.
!X
.1610
42
3.500 1307
131
66
1 1^
•1945
52
4-333
1535
I54
77
i*
.2300
63
5-250
1760
176
88
.1625
5°
4.167
1123
112
56
l%
.1800
56
4.667
1228
123
62
iy*
.2250
72
6.000
1488
I49
75
1 1/
.2580
84
7.000
1672
I67
84
i^
.1940
7°
5.833
1146
"5
58
^
.2220
81
6.750
1290
129
65
I 3^
•2435
90
7.500
1396
140
70
2
•2055
84
7.000
1067
107
54
2
.2320
96
8.000
"93
119
60
2
.2670
112
9-333
1347 1 135
68
Strength of Timbers to Resist Crushing Strains, in Pounds
and Tons, per Square Inch.
Maxim m
Minim'm
M«
an.
Ratio of
dry,
Ibs.
state, Ibs.
Ibs.
tons.
to col. 2.
Alder
6,960
6,831
6,896
3.08
i. 02
Ash
9,363
8,683
9,023
4.03
1. 08
Bavwood
7,518
7,518
7,518
3.76
I.OO
Beech
9,363
7,733
8,548
3.81
1. 21
Birch, English
6,402
3.297
4,850
2.16
1.94
278 TIN, SHEET-IKON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
Table Continued.
Kind of Timber.
Maxim'm
dry,
Ibs.
Minim'm
ordinary
state, Ibs.
Mean.
Ratio of
column I
to col. 2.
Ibs.
tons.
Birch, American... .
Box
11,663
9.971
5.863
7.H8
6,586
7.293
9.973
10,331
6,819
7,289
8,198
10,058
5.982
7,73i
6,790
5.445
7,5'8
10,493
5,124
9,2Q7*
12,101
5,568
7,227
6,128
8,970*
7,670*
5,674
6,499
5,748
6,781
7.451
7,950*
6,499
4,533
6484
4,231
5,95°*
6,790
5,375
5,395
8,241
3,107
7,082
9,3io*
3,201
6,063
2,898
10,316
8,820
5,768
6,824
6,167
7,037
8,712
9,140
6,659
5-9H
8,198
8,271
5,io6
6,840
6,790
5,4io
6,457
9,367
4,116
8,144
10,706
4,385
6,645
4.513
4.60
3-94
2.58
3-05
2-75
3-'4
389
4.08
2.97
2.64
3.66
3-69
2.28
3-05
3-<>3
2.41
2.88
4.18
1.84
3-67
4.78
1.96
2.97
2. 02
•30
•30
•03
.10
3
•34
1.30
•05
i. 60
I.OO
i-55
1.41
1.30
I.OO
I.OI
1.40
1.27
1.65
1.30
1.30
1.74
1.19
2.1 1
Cedar
Crab-tree
Deal, red
Deal, white
Elder
Elm
Mahogany
Oak, English
Oak, Quebec
Oak, Dantzic
Pine, pitch
Pine, yellow
Pine, red
Plum
Poplar .
Teak
Larch
Walnut
Willow
* Calculated from the general ratio of the experiments in columns
I and 2, which is 1.3 to i.o.
Table of the Strength, Extensibility and Stiffness of Metals,
Cast Iron being i, or Unity.
Metals.
Strength.
Extensibility.
Stiffness.
1. 12
086
|.4
o 6?
I 2?
O C7C
Brass
O 4^C
O Q
O 4Q
Zinc
o 36?
O ?
o 76
Tin
o 182
O 7?
o 25
Lead
0.096
2.5
0.385
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
278-
Table of the Strength, Extensibility and Stiffness of Woods,
Cast Iron being i, or Unity.
Woods.
Strength.
Extensibility.
Stiffness.
Oak
O 25
28
O OQ3
Ash
26
o 089
Elm
O.2I
2.Q
O.O73
Pine, yellow
°-3
2.6
O.II54
Beech
O.IC
2.1
O.O73
Mahogany, Honduras. . . .
0.24
2-9
0.487
Effect of Remelting on the Strength of Cast Iron.
Number
of
Melting.
Transverse
strength, 4^ ft.
bars, I inch
square.
Crushing
strength per
square
inch.
Calculated
tensile strength
per square
inch.
I
Tons.
2187
Tons.
Tons.
2 ...
IQ7-J
4? 6
8 217
•7
•I7Q7*
7 T«l*
1846
7 607
5 . .
.1927
4I.I
8.151
6
.I(XQ
4I.I
8.740
7
.2OOC
4O Q
sit?
8
.2102
41 I
o 847
2440
re i
10 07
10
3C)i
cj7 7
10 40
1 1
60 8
1 1 71
12 .
7-2 i
12 CI*
I?
2834.
660
II ^4
14
15
.1657
76.7
;.-?66
16
.11568
70.1?
5.110
17.. .
18...
.no6
88.0
4.IQ6
NOTE. — Maximum and minimum results marked *.
It would seem from all this that the method of obtaining
increased strength by remelting cast iron is very uncertain.
It will also be expensive in fuel, labor and waste of metal.
With iron such as that in 5, where the mean tensile strength
was increased from i to 18.26 -i- 5.6 = 3.26 at the fourth
280 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.
melting, it would no doubt be commercially advantageous.
In such a case experiments should be especially made on
the iron to be used.
By maintaining cast iron in a state of fusion for length
ened periods, the tensile strength is greatly increased ; thus
with iron twice remelted and kept in fusion for
0123 hours,
the tensile strength was
15,861 20,420 24,383 25,733 Ibs.
per square inch. In another experiment, the time being =
1/2 i i^ 2 hours;
the tensile strength =
17,843 20,127 24,387 34>496 Ibs.
Table Showing the Average Crushing Load of Different
Materials, or the Weight under which they will Crumble.
Lbs. per sq. inch.
Alder 6,900
Ash 8,600
Beech. 7,600
Cedar 5,700
Elm 10,000
Fir-spruce 6,500
Hickory, white 8,925
Lbs. per sq. inch.
Walnut 6,000
Willow 2,900
Cast iron, American 174,803
Low Moor, English 62,450
Wrought iron 38,000
Steel, cast 225,000
Steel, tempered 337,8oo
Hornbeam 4,500 | Copper, cast 1 1 7,000
Larch 3, 200 j Brass, cast 1 64,800
Locust.. - 9,1 *3 Tin, cast 15,500
Maple 8,150 Lead 7,73°
Hard brick.
Oak.
4,200
2,000
Oak, English 6,500 Crown glass 31,000
Pine, pitch 6,800 Granite, English 10,360
Pine, American yellow.. .. 5,300 Portland cement 15,000
Poplar 5,100
Plum
3.700
Freestone, Conn.
Marble, American.
Roman cement. . .
,522
,061
342
Sycamore. 7,000
Teak 12,000
Table Showing the Tensile Strength, or the Strain that will
Pull Different Metals Asunder on a Straight Pull.
Lbs. per sq. inch.
Antimony l,ooo
Bismuth 3,200
Brass, cast 18,000
Copper, cast 19,000
Lbs. per sq. inch.
Gun metal 96,000
Iron, cast 17,900
Wrought iron, bar 57, 500
Wrought iron, good 60,000
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
281
Table Showing the Tensile Strength or the Strain that will
Pull Different Metals Asunder on a Straight Pull.
Lbs. per sq. inch.
Wrought iron, superior. . . . 70,000
Wrought iron, best Amer'n. 76, 1 60
Wrought iron, Low Moor. 60,000
Wrought iron, boiler plate. 45,000
Steel plates, English 78,000
Steel plates, American 94,45O
Steel plates, Bessemer,
American 98,600
Bessemer steel, tool 1 1 2,000
Lbs. per sq. inch.
Steel, bar— Black Diamond,
American.. 120,700
Steel, tempered 214,400
Chrome steel, American . . 180,000
Silver, cast 41 ,000
Tin, block 4,600
Zinc, cast 2,800
Zinc, sheet . 16,000
Zinc, wire 22,000
Table Showing the Tensile Strength of Different Kinds of
Wood.
Alder
Lbs. per sq. inch.
14 ooo
Hickory..
Lbs. per sq. inch.
. . . II OOO
Ash
16 ooo
. . II OOO
Birch
15 ooo
Larch.
7 ooo
12 OOO
18 ooo
Beech
Maple
8 ooo
Boxwood.. ....
20,000
Oak
10,000
Cedar
7,000
Pear
10,000
Chestnut
13,000
Pine
10,000
6,000
Poplar
7,000
Elder
Elm
10,000
6 ooo
Sycamore
Teak .
12,000
15 ooo
10 ooo
Walnut
.... 8 ooo
Hazel
. . 18 ooo
Yew . . .
.. .. 8 ooo
Hollv...
. . . 16,000
SUPPLEMENTARY PATTERN
PROBLEMS
INTRODUCTION.
THERE are three distinct methods of cutting patterns
ior sheet metal objects and are based on the geometrical
science of developing the surfaces of solids. The first
method is termed parallel line development and is the
simplest of the three. The second is the radial line method
and comprehends conical problems and the like. The
patterns of all regular objects of sheet metal can be
developed by either of these two methods. The majority
of sheet metal articles are irregular in shape and an accu-
rate pattern could not be developed for them by either of
these two methods.
The geometrical truth that if you possess the lengths of
the base and altitude of a right angled triangle you can
then readily determine the length of the hypotenus, that
is to say, the third side of the right angled triangle, has
been used for these irregular objects and is the third
method of cutting patterns and is termed triangulation.
Such problems like the one labelled Fig. 67 or Fig. 71,
or again Fig. 77, are developed by the first system, that
is, parellel line development. Such problems as Fig. 1 or
Fig. 85 are developed by the radial line system. Such
problems as Fig. 38 are truly triangulation problems and
are so solved, although the text does not mention this
important fact. Triangulation, by reason of its tremen-
dous value to sheet metal pattern cutters is especially
•emphasized in this section of the book by selecting most
•of the problems solved by that method.
CHIMNEY BASE PATTERN 283
Before leaving the subject of the three methods, it is to
be understood that there are some objects, the surfaces of
which have double curvature, and their surfaces cannot be
laid flat, so to speak, like the surface of a cylinder, that is
a pipe. A ball is an object of double surface curvature and.
a true pattern cannot be cut for it. However, an approxi-
mate pattern may be developed for such objects by some
one, or perhaps a combination of the three systems. In
Fig. 41 a ball or a dome pattern is developed by the radial
line system, while in Fig. 42 the pattern has been developed
by the parallel line system.
PATTERN FOR A CHIMNEY BASE.
To describe the pattern for a transitional object the
base of which is a rectangle and the top circular and
situated centrally in respect to the base. — The object is sim-
ilar to Fig. 53 and is here solved by triangulation. Let
ABCD of Fig. 171 be the plan view of rectangular part of
the base to fit over the chimney, and EFGH the circular
top to which is attached the cylindrical smoke stack. Di-
vide quarter circle FG into say four equal spaces as
shown. Connect F, 1, 2, 3 and G with B. With B as
center swing these points to line AB. Also project point
G upwards as shown by G". Assume that BJ is the height
of the object. Then BJ is the altitude of the triangles
as mentioned in the introduction to this section of the
book, and F', I', G', 2', 3' and G" are the bases of the
triangles. Then such lines, as F'J, are the sought for
hypotenuses or true lengths of such lines as FB.
With these data the pattern is developed by drawing
anywhere a line equal in length to G"J as G4 in Fig. 172»
With G, 'Fig. 172, as center and distance G'J of Fig. 171
as radius, describe an arc which intersect by an arc
(of a radius equal to distance 4B of Fig. 171), using 4 as
center. Connect G4B with lines. Using always B as
center, in Fig. 172, and with radii 3'J, 2'J, 1'J and F'J of
284 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
Fig. 171, describe short arcs. Set the dividers to space G3
of Fig. 171, and beginning at G in Fig. 172, step succesr-
sively to each arc locating thus, points 3, 2, 1 and F. Trace
a line through these points. Still using B of Fig. 172
as center, describe an arc of a radius equal to AB of
Fig. 171. With F of Fig. 172 as center and a radius
equal to FB, describe an arc to intersect the one described
with B as center, locating thereby point A. Connect
Fig. 171.
ABF and then repeat the first part of the pattern, using1
always A as center. This will be the net one-half pat-
tern for the object and allowances must be made for
edges and the like for all seams. Slight bends are made
on those lines indicated with small circles.
This object is known as a quarter symmetrical object
because each quarter or section as AEF, DHG, CHE and
BGF are exactly similar so that the pattern for one will
do for the patterns of the others. Now, such objects can
QUARTER SYMMETRICAL OBJECT
285
have the circular top much different in respect to its size
with the base, providing that always the circle is de-
Fig. 172.
scribed with its center also the center of the rectangle.
Fig. 173 shows an object the circular top of which ex-
tends beyond the sides of the rectangle. This diagram
also shows the system of triangulation and Fig. 174 is
286 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
the developed pattern. Again, Fig. 175 shows an object
with circular base extending all around the rectangle
top. This diagram also shows the triangulation and Fig.
176 shows the half pattern. Thus it will be seen that the
OFFSETTING TRANSITION FITTING 287
foregoing explanatory text applies to three problems be-
cause of their similarity.
Fig. 176.
PATTERN FOR AN OFFSETTING TRANSITION
FITTING WITH A SQUARE BASE AND
ROUND TOP.
To describe the pattern for a transitional object the
base of which is a rectangle and the top a circle situated
off center one way in respect to the base. — The object
shown in Fig. 177 is termed an object of symmetrical
halves because the parts separated by the line HF are
exactly alike. This means that two sets of triangles must
be constructed as shown before the pattern can be devel-
oped. However, the procedure is similar to that for the
preceding problems and should be readily understood by an
inspection of Figs. 177 and 178, except to say that the
pattern is started by making line H*H in Fig. 178 the
length of DJ° in Fig. 177. In Fig. 178, HD equals HD
of Fig. 177, and H*D, Fig. 178, is the same length as HJ°
of Fig. 177. Also, distance FK of Fig. 177 is set from
B as K', by coincidence falling on point 2', then FK of
Fig. 178 equals length JK' of Fig. 177.
288 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
J
Fig. 178.
DOUBLE OFFSETTING FITTING 289
Like the other three examples mentioned, the relative
sizes of the rectangle and circle have nothing to do with
the symmetry of the object, providing that always the
center of the rectangle and the center of the circle are
on line HF of Fig. 177.
PATTERN FOR A DOUBLE OFFSETTING TRAN-
SITION FITTING WITH A SQUARE
BASE AND ROUND TOP.
To describe the pattern for a transitional object the
base of which is a rectangle and the top a circle situated
off center both ways in respect to the base. — A non-sym-
Fig. 179.
metrical of this kind is one that no quarters of it are alike
as shown by Fig. 179. Following the principles as ex-
plained in the foregoing, diagrams of triangles are con-
structed, in this case, for all quarters. If the triangles
were drawn in Fig. 179 as was done by the other prob-
lems, there would be quite a mix-up of lines, so they were
drawn elsewhere as in Figs. 180 to 183; by, as for the
quarter GBF of Fig. 179, for instance, taking the distances
from B to F, to 3, to 2, to 1 and to G and placing them
from B on a line as shown in Fig. 180. A vertical line is
290 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
drawn from B to J the height of the object which COIP-
pletes the diagram of triangles, and so forth. The pat-
tern, Fig. 184, is then laid out as before explained.
By the principles expounded in the foregoing, it is pos-
sible to develop patterns for objects having a base any
shape and not necessarily a rectangle and a top of any
other shape than a circle, subject to the condition that base
and top must always be parallel to each other.
\
IN\
v\\
*l ^ \
v\\
1 \ \ \
\\ \
\
\
i V \
\
J 1 2 63
F
Fig. 180
6E5 4
Fig. 181.
7 E 9
8
Fig. 182.
D n re 10 6 H
Fig. 183.
PATTERN FOR A FURNACE BOOT.
To describe the pattern for an object the base of which
is a circle and the top an oval. — The object shown in
Fig. 185 has its pattern developed by the same principle
expounded in the foregoing. There is, though, no corner
acting as the center for numerous arcs, as, for instance,
OFFSETTING FITTING PATTERN 291
B in Fig. 171, which requires a slightly different procedure
for constructing the triangle and for developing the pat-
terns. Like the others, these problems can be symmetri-
Fig. 184.
cal quarters, symmetrical halves or non-symmetrical. As,
however, the basic principles are identical, only one prob-
lem is here demonstrated.
Let ABCD be the circular top and JHEKFG the out-
292 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
line of the base, mistakenly called oval in the sheet metal
trade. It will be seen that this so-called oval has a rec-
tangular center, HEFG, with semi-circular ends, EKF
KJO.TO.30. E
Fig. 186.
VY\ DIAGRAM OF
\\v\ TRIANGLES
\
K, 10, 20 30
Fig. 187.
and HJG. Divide the quarter-circle AB of the top into,
say, four equal* spaces, B, 1, 2, 3 and A. Also divide the
quarter-circle EK of the base into the same number of
FURNACE BOOT PATTERN 298
spaces, as K, 10, 20, 30 and E. Connect with solid lines
B to K, 1 to 10, 2 to 20, 3 to 30 and A to E. Then con-
nect with dotted lines, K to 1, 10 to 2, 20 to 30 and 30
to E. These are the systems of triangles and are bases
of right-angled triangles, the altitudes being the height of
the object, or BB' of Fig. 186 and AA' of Fig. 187. Take
the distances from B to K, and so forth, and place them
on the horizontal line in Fig. 186, measuring always from
point B, as shown. Do the same with the dotted lines like
Kl and place them in Fig. 187. In Fig. 186 KB' is the
true length of line BK of Fig. 185, and so on, and in Fig.
E ^30 ,^0 JO K
187 KA' is the true length of line Kl of Fig. 186, and so on.
Having these data the pattern is developed by drawing a
line equal in length to KB' of Fig. 186, as BK of Fig. 188.
With K as center and radius equal to KA' of Fig. 187,
describe a short arc. With the dividers set to space Bl
of Fig. 185 and one point at B, Fig. 188, step off point 1.
With point 1 as center and radius equal in length to 10B'
of Fig. 186, describe a short arc. Set dividers to space
K10 of Fig. 185, and with one point of dividers at K of
Fig. 188, step off point 10. With 10 as center and radius
10A' of Fig. 187, describe arc as before and step off on
294 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
it space 1 to 2 of Fig. 185, giving thus point 2 of Fig. 188.
With 2 as center and radius 20B' of Fig. 186, describe arc
and intersect with space same as K10, giving point 20 in
Fig. 188, and so forth, until points A and E are located.
With same radius AE and E as center, describe an arc
which intersects with an arc having E as center and
radius equal in length to EH of Fig. 185, thus locating
point H of Fig. 188. The balance of the pattern, ADJH,
is a duplication of ABKE. As was stated, this is a figure
of symmetrical quarters and following these principles,
objects having symmetrical halves or non-symmetrical can
have their patterns developed, as explained in connection
with the other problems.
Fig. 183.
ROOF COLLAR PATTERN 295
PATTERN FOR A SQUARE TO ROUND
ROOF COLLAR.
To describe the pattern for an object with a rectangular
base and circular top situated at an angle in respect to
base. — The plan of the object as shown in Fig. 189 is much
the same as Fig. 171. The elevation, however, shows that
the top is not parallel with the base. This means that
although the object has symmetrical quarters, two sets of
triangles must be constructed because, as can be seen in
the elevation, the altitudes of the triangles are not alike
due to the base being inclined from the horizontal. Such
objects are frequently used to make a finish at the roof for
smoke stacks or ventilators, and the procedure for con-
structing the triangles and developing the pattern should
be obvious by an inspection of Fig. 189 and Fig. 190. Suf-
fice to say that owing to the EFGH being situated cen-
296 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
trally, in plan, in a square, the base line DE is of the same
length as DF, and so forth. The only difference in the
process of developing the pattern from the foregoing is
that length D'C of Fig. 190 is not DC in plan of Fig. 189
but D'C in elevation of Fig. 189. Following these princi-
ples, patterns can be developed for similar objects of
symmetrical halves or non-symmetrical, just as was done
for Figs. 173, 175, 177 and 179.
PATTERN FOR AN OFFSETTING FURNACE BOOT.
To describe the pattern for an offsetting three-piece
transitional object, round at the base and oval at the top.
This article is a common fitting for hot air furnace
work, and the problem of pattern development embodies
principles of triangulation that are applicable to innumer-
able problems. There are several systems of triangulating
such objects, but the one explained here is about the short-
est and best yet devised.
As shown in Fig. 191, the object consists of an oval
collar No. 1, a cylindrical collar No. 3, the profile or sec-
tion of which is parallel to, but not situated centrally in
respect to the profile of collar No. 1. To join these two
collars there is an offsetting and transitional piece of
irregular shape, labelled No. 2.
Assume that collar No. 1 is to be placed where shown,
and that form C° to C2 is to be the size of the throat of
the collar. Again, assume that collar No. 3 is to be placed
where shown and that C^C0* is to be the length of the heel.
Connect C° and C°-r and bisect the angle C2C°COX by the
rule given in Fig. 121, thus obtaining the miter line C°B°.
Bisect angle C°COXCT, obtaining thereby miter line Bot.
Join B°B°-jr, which completes the elevation. It is not neces-
sary to draw a complete plan. All that is needed is a
half profile of collar No. 1, placed as shown by half pro-
file W and a half profile of collar No. 3, placed as shown
by half profile X. It will be seen that this is a flexible de-
OFFSETTING FURNACE BOOT 297
sign of furnace fitting, and can be modified at pleasure to
suit existing conditions.
Divide half profile X into, say, six equal spaces. Also
Fig. 191.
divide the round portion of half profile W into six equal
spaces. Project the points in half profile X up to miter
line B°-rOr, and indicate where they intersect this line,
298 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
also where the cross line B*C*> as shown. Do the same
with half profile W and then join like numbers on both
miter lines with solid lines. Then, beginning at C°, join 5°*,
and so on, with dotted lines.
Collars No. 1 and No. 3 have their patterns developed
by the parallel line system, therefor extend line from
point C2 and place thereon the girth of half profile W as
Fig. 192.
Fig. 193.
shown by points A' to D'. Project lines from these points
and intersect them with lines projected from like numbered
points on miter line B°O as shown. Sketch a line through
these points from D^ to A^" which completes the half pat-
tern of collar No. 1. Repeat these operations for collar
No. 3, then (XEB^C5 is the half pattern for collar No. 3.
Those dotted and solid lines in piece No. 2 are not shown
in their true lengths and a modified system of right-angled
triangles is constructed for each set of dotted and solid
lines. This system is shown in Figs. 192 and 193, and are
PATTERN FOR OFFSETTING BOOT
299
called diagrams of sections. Proceed to construct these
diagrams by drawing a horizontal line and locating there-
on point B* as in Fig. 192. Take the lengths of the solid
lines in Fig. 191, and measuring from point Br in Fig. 192
place them on this line, like length 5°*5° of Fig. 191 is B*S°
of Fig. 192, and so on. Erect vertical lines from these
points and on the line from BT place the lengths of the
lines of half profile X of Fig. 191, like 1*1", 2*2" and
3*3". On like numbered lines in Fig. 192 place the lengths
Fig. 194.
of the half profile X, like line 33 " ' of Fig. 191 is 33' " of
Fig. 192. Connect proper points with lines, and to better
distinguish them the solid and dotted lines have individual
designators, as shown by the letters a to k. The sections
for the dotted lines are constructed in the same manner and
should be understood by referring to like numbers or letters
in all the illustrations.
The half profiles X and W do not give the girth of piece
No. 2 on the miter lines, and to find that girth it was cus-
tomary to develop the true shapes of the piece on these
300 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
miter lines. However, as only the girths are required and as
it is obvious that the miter cuts of the both collars must fit
at the respective miters of piece No. 2, it is usual now to
dispense with obtaining these true shapes and to measure
the required girth from the miter cuts in the patterns of the
collars, as explained later.
The pattern can now be developed by drawing, where
convenient, a line equal in length to OrO of Fig. 191, as
Oi'DF of Fig. 194. At right angle to this draw a line from
point DF equal in length to DC of half profile W in Fig.
191. Draw line C*CP. With Cp as center and C"5* of
Fig. 193 as radius, describe a short arc which intersect
by one described from point Cs of Fig. 194 as center and
a radius equal to distance CS5S of the pattern for collar
No. 3 in Fig. 191, establishing point 5s. With point 5s as
center and radius 5*5'" of Fig. 192, describe short arc.
Intersect this with one described with point Cp of Fig.
194 as center and a radius equal to CF5P of the pattern of
collar No. 1 in Fig. 191. Continue in this manner until
point A^B-S" is reached, which completes the half pattern,
always being sure to measure like spaces in the collar pat-
terns for the spaces in the pattern Fig. 194, because they
are all different, and observe that the length of the final
line AFES is taken from Eox to B° of the elevation in Fig.
191, all as shown.
PATTERNS FOR A Y BRANCH.
To describe the pattern for a bifurcated object, circular
at one end and branching into two smaller circular open-
ings.— These fittings are used quite extensively in the
sheet metal trade, and of course the design can be ad-
justed to suit requirements or the taste of the designer.
The same system of triangulation is used as for the pre-
ceding problem. A collar is shown at the larger end —
collar S — but none at the branches ; oftentimes collars are
attached to these branches to facilitate the connecting of
Y BRANCH PATTERNS
301
the pipes to them. As the collars are merely circular
bands the pattern for collar S is not shown, the pattern
being just a rectangular sheet, its width l°ls and its length
the girth of the half profile W, Fig. 195.
As was stated, these designs are more or less arbitrarily
COLLAR S
4°
Bjl
Fig. 195.
f\
4*4**
DIAGRAM FOR DOTTED SECTIONS
Fig. 197.
drawn. Therefore, assume that the collar S is as wanted
in the matter of size and position and that branches T and
R turn off at the angle required and that the half profiles
Y and Z show the desired sizes and locations of the
termini of the branches.
302 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
In this case both branches are alike and the object is of
symmetrical halves, but these principles of pattern devel-
opment, with but slight adjustment, are applicable to prob-
lems that have unalike branches and to problems that are
non-symmetrical. Divide the half profile W into equal
spaces from 1 to 4 as shown. Also divide the entire half
profile Y into equal spaces, from 1* to 7*. Project these
spaces in both half profiles to lines 4"!° and 710110 as shown.
Project lines from 4° and 7'" to the left and erect a line as
7 4*°. Also establish point 4" as far from 4r° that 4' is
from 4 in the half profile W. Sketch half profile X from
4" to 7' at pleasure, as there are no geometrical restrictions
in its design other than that distance 4" 4*° must equal 4 4',
and distance 4X07' must equal 4°7'". Divide profile X into
three equal spaces and project them across locating, thus
points 5'" and 6'". Connect all the points as shown with
dotted and solid lines as a to k.
Construct the diagrams of sections as heretofor, which
will give the true lengths of the lines a to k. That is, all
the lengths of the solid lines in branch R, Fig. 195, are
placed on a horizontal line in Fig. 196. Then the spaces
in profiles W and Y are placed on the vertical lines from
these points; for instance, length of line 410 4° in Fig.
195 is placed in Fig. 196 as 7-1 to 4*. Then space 41*
TAPER JOINT PATTERN 803
4* of profile Y in Fig. 195 in space 1 to 4 of Fig. 196 and
space 4 to 4' of profile W, Fig. 195 is space 4* 4' of Fig.
196, and so on. Do likewise for the dotted lines in Fig. 197
noting that the direction of the dotted lines change at 4°
of Fig. 195, which was done to facilitate laying out the
pattern, and be very careful that from 4 to 7 the spaces
are taken from profile X from 4" to 4*°, and so forth.
The pattern is developed in Fig. 198 by drawing line
I'l10 equal in length to 1°110 of Fig. 195, then proceed-
ing as explained in connection with the other problems.
Spaces 1" to 2°, 2° to 3°, and 3° to 4° are taken from half
profile W in Fig. 195, while spaces 4° to 5'", 5'" to 6'", and
6'" to 7'" in Fig. 198 are taken from half profile X in
Fig. 195. The spaces I10 to 210, and so forth, of Fig. 198 are
all taken from the half profile Y in Fig. 195. Line 7'"710
of Fig. 198 equals in length line 7'" 710 of Fig. 195, which
completes the one-half net pattern of the branches, there
being four like this required for the object.
PATTERN FOR A TAPER JOINT.
To describe the pattern of a frustum of scalene cone. —
Another system of triangulation is that used for develop-
ing the pattern of a scalene cone, and by scalene cone is
meant an object similar to a cone, but having its apex
(A of Fig. 199) not centrally located in respect to the
center of the base (3', Fig. 199) like in a true cone.
Being like a cone, though, the system for developing the
pattern resembles the radical line system of developing
cone patterns. One of the common articles made of sheet
metal that can have their pattern developed by this process
is the taper joint with a straight back, or as some call it,
a reducing joint which is used for changing the diameter
in piping. Should the difference in the two diameters be
slight, however, this system would be impractical owing to
the remoteness of apex A which would give a radius so
long that it could not be swung within a reasonable
304 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
distance, in which case the system explained in connec-
tion with Fig. 185 would be employed.
Assume that 1 to 7 is a half plan view of the largest
end of the joint and that \X7X is the diameter of the small-
est end and that 1 to 1* is the height along the straight
Fig. 199.
side. Then 1*, 7X, 7, 1 is the outline of the joint in eleva-
tion constituting a frustum of a cone in geometrical par-
lance. Continue lines 1 \x and 7 7* until they meet at the
apex A. Divide the half plan into equal spaces as shown
and using point one as center swing these points up to line
1 7. Then from 1 to 2' and so forth are the bases of the
FLAT SKYLIGHTS 305
right-angled triangles and 1 to A the altitude, and there-
fore 2' to A the apex or the desired true length of the
element line. To explain what is meant, refer to the plan
where it will be seen that 1 to 4 is the plan view of that
element of the scalene cone and is the base line mentioned.
To save transferring it elsewhere and constructing a dia-
gram of triangles, it is simply swung up to line 1 7 as shown.
Draw the element lines to the apex as shown, then with
A as center swing arcs of indefinite lengths from points 1,
2' and so on. On the arc described from the point 1
establish the point 1°. With the dividers spaced to distance
1 to 2 of the plan and beginning at point \°, step off to
each succeeding arc the points 2°, 3°, 4°, 5°, 6° and 7°.
Trace a line through these points which will be the bottom
outline of the pattern. From these points draw lines as
shown, to apex A. Indicate on line \X7X in the elevation
where the element lines cross, as 2X and so forth. Again
using A as center, describe arcs from these points to inter-
sect like numbered element lines in the pattern, thereby
locating points 1", 2", and so forth. A line traced through
these points will be the outline of the top of the pattern
and completes the one-half net pattern of the object.
FLAT SKYLIGHTS.
To describe the patterns for a square framed object,
with cross ribs for the support of glass, to admit light
through a roof opening. — One of the most important
branches of the sheet metal'industry is the making of sky-
lights. There are numerous types of skylight, the sim-
plest of which is one that is termed a flat skylight because
it sets flat on the roof, the pitch of which coincides with
the pitch of the skylight, so that proper drainage of the
skylight perforces a slope in the roof adequate for this.
This type of skylight is most always set on a raised roof
curb, and it is possible to make the back, or rather, top
curb a little higher than the bottom curb in case the slope
306 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
of the roof is not sufficient for drainage. Of course, this
difference in height must not be much, or this type of sky-
light will not then fit the roof curb.
For flat skylights the pattern development is simple, but
as the designs become more intricate, just so do the pat-
tern problems become more complicated ; still, in all types,
the construction features present more formidable prob-
lems than the pattern development. A flat skylight, the
dimensions of which are three feet by five feet has been
chosen as an example, and in Fig. 200 is shown a scale
TOP CURB OF SHEET
-'METAL SKYLIGHT '
_-!-*_
"-BOTTOM CURBi A
« --- H4s-— *« --- 14|-— >i«
---- 5-0"— -f
Fig. 200.
layout giving the spacing of the bars and such needed data.
As will be seen, glass fourteen inches wide divides this
skylight into suitable spaces so that the bars are spaced
fourteen and five-eighth inches on center which allows
the necessary play room of about one-quarter inch for the
glass. Note that there is a three-quarter inch shoulder on
the three sides of the skylight which accounts tor the
measurements as shown, and therefore the bar lengths
would be thirty-five and one-quarter inches and the lights
of flass fourteen by thirty-five inches.
SECTION AND PATTERNS
Sb'CTION G
TOP CURVE
ALSO SECTION I |Q
ON EF FLG.700
OF SIDE CURB
Fig. 201.
308 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
The design of the skylight is shown in Fig. 201, and it
should be understood that for very large skylights these
parts would be reinforced by structural steel like, say, a
flat band iron core within the bar. When designing the
shapes of all types of skylights it is advisable, for eco-
nomical reasons, to calculate the sizes of the various mem-
bers so that the entire girth of the part will cut from the
sheets without undue waste. The sections shown in Fig.
201 are a view of the skylight on line AB of Fig. 200 with
the profile of the bar, which is a section on the line CD,
Fig. 200, interposed between the profiles of the top and
bottom curbs to show its relation to these, in the matter of
glass rest lines, and so forth- It will be seen that these
profiles have shoulders on which putty is spread for a bed
for the glass and that the joint between the glass and sheet
metal is further protected from the weather by sheet metal
caps, shaped as shown.
The pattern of these caps is obtained by placing their
girth — as 1 to 5 — on line AB. The bottom cut of the bar
cap is straight as per the solid line and the top cut also as
per solid line. The cap for the side curb is the same pat-
tern with the addition of the lap b (but not c~). The cap
for the top curb is also the same, except that its length is
the distance between bars, and that both ends have a
straight cut with the lap c on one end for connection to
each other at the back. The top caps are held in place by
soldering to the curb, while the side curb and bar caps are
soldered to these, and at the bottom, say about six inches
from the end, sheet copper cleats one inch wide and about
two inches long are first soldered to the bar or side curb
and then passed through a chiseled opening in the cap and
then folded over.
The pattern of the side curb is obtained by placing the
girth of section G on line CD as shown. Take the distance
also from 5 to 4B of the bottom curb and place it from 7
to 4B on line CD. Draw parallel lines through these, points
and intersect with line dropped from the profiles, as shown.
FLAT SKYLIGHT PATTERNS 3Q&
This, then, with the laps as shown by dotted lines, is the
pattern for the side curbs and for the skylight of Fig. 200,
the distance on measuring points PP* should be three feet.
The pattern for the top curb has the miter cut at P* of Fig.
201 on both ends, but without laps; that is, the solid line
from Z to Z* and the length between miters in the measur-
ing point P* (to P-r) for the skylight of Fig. 200 will be
five feet.
The pattern for the bottom curb is obtained by placing
its girth on a line, as 1 to 9 on line KL of Fig. 201, and
the parallel lines through these figures intersected by
lines dropped from the section G of top curb. Observe
that from \* to 6X is a straight notch and that the rest of
the miter is also a straight cut with but one lap as shown
dotted ; this is not exactly the way the miter cut is, accord-
ing to the intersection of the bottom curb with the side
curb, but is so cut because it makes a more rigid and
easily assembled joint. Again observe that the miter cut
is the same at both ends just like the top curb, and for the
skylight of Fig. 200 the distance between miter cuts on
point H (to H-r) would be five feet.
The pattern for the bars is shown with its girth 1 to 11
on line MN. The miter cut (as well as the girth) from Zx*
to T* to Zxxx is the same as the miter cut from Z to T in
the pattern of the side curb ; this is for the miter of the
bar to the top curb. The miter cut for the joint between
the bar and the bottom curb is S* to W* to S**, and is the
same as S to W in the pattern of the side curb. The
length of this bar for the skylight of Fig. 200 would be
thirty-five and one-quarter inches on the measuring line.
Note that the length of the cap should be about one-eighth
of an inch longer than the bars. This is all the patterns
required and it should be understood that these patterns
will answer for any size skylight by simply extending the
distance between miter cuts as specified by a similar lay-
out as Fig. 200.
310 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
PATTERNS FOR A HIPPED SKYLIGHT.
To describe the patterns for a pyramid-shaped object
the sides of which consist of sheet metal ribs and glass,
for the admission of light and air through roofs. — Next to
flat skylights, hipped skylights are the most important.
Like the flat skylight they have a square frame or curb,
but the sides are slanted so that these skylights can be
placed on a perfectly flat roof. Just ordinary sheet metal
shaped to the required profiles is strong enough for sky-
lights of medium size, and if they are exceptionally large
the parts can be reinforced with structural steel shapes..
To allow ventilation of the inside of the building these
skylights can be made with a ventilator like the scale
layout of Fig. 202. If a greater amount of ventilation is
wanted these skylights are superimposed on a turret frame
of suitable height, the sides of which have either louver
slats or pivoted sashes. Of course, these glass spaces of
Fig. 202 can be made to suit the glass or hand, but the
HIP SKYLIGHTS 811
layout shown is symmetrical and economical in glass. If
there was a ridge bar (as line AB), all the bars would
terminate against it and its length would be found by de-
ducting the width of the skylight from its length, so that
four feet from six feet means that this ridge bar (AB)
would be two feet long. However, in this case there is a
ventilator six inches wide and the bars terminate against
its four sides which are the dotted lines CDEF. To find
the length of this ventilator add six inches to the difference
between the side and length of the skylight which, as
stated for the ridge bar, is two feet, so two feet and six
inches equal thirty inches, which is the length of the venti-
lator. Over this ventilator there is a hood to keep out
the rain and snow, and this hood has two inches more pro-
jection all around than the ventilator, so that its dimen-
sions are as shown.
By mathematical calculations it has been determined that
for the pitch of a skylight used here for an example; that
is, a pitch of six inches to a foot, for every inch shown in
the plan layout, the actual length of the bar is 1.118 of an
inch. Therefore, to find the true length of the common
bar take one-half the width of the skylight, which is
twenty-four inches, and multiply it by this factor. In this
case, however, there is a ventilator, so three inches, or half
the width of the ventilator, is subtracted from this twenty-
four inches, which leaves twenty-one inches, and this
times 1.118 is 23.478, or practically twenty-three and one-
half inches. For the true length of the jack bar, multiply
this factor by fifteen and three-quarter inches which is
17.6085, or practically seventeen and five-eighth inches.
By the same mathematical calculation it was found that the
hip bar is one-half inch more on the slant per inch than
shown on the flat line of the common bar in plan, so that
the factor for the hip bar is 1.5. Therefore, if a ridge bar
is used instead of a ventilator, multiply this factor by
twenty-four inches, but in this case there is a ventilator,
so like for the common bar multiply by twenty-one inches
312 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
which is 31.5, or thirty-one and one-half inches, the true
length of the hip bar.
PATTERNS OF COMMON
AND JACK BARS
. .GLASS LINE
AND
> MEA5. POINT
A section of the skylight is given in Fig. 203. Note the
profile of the curb and how it is bent to conform to the
HIP SKYLIGHT DESIGN 313
pitch of the skylight. Also see the relation of the bar and
its cap to the curb and to the ventilator. This ventilator
is essentially a half bar with an integral protection cap, A,
which passes over both the bar and its cap and the half
cap B, which is held in place by the thrust of the bar cap.
The vent extends considerable above cap A to give space
for a swinging damper inside of it and is a neck, so to
speak, with the weather baffle edge on which is bolted a
1-8x1 inch band iron brace which is bent as shown and is
0cX
\
/
r-t
PATTERN OF
VENT NECK
0VAi
/
GLASS LINE
AND MEASURE
POINT
Fig. 204.
also bolted to the hood, the shape of which is clearly shown
in the section.
In laying out the patterns for skylights and to measure
the various parts, a certain line termed the glass line is
taken as a basis to work on. This line passes through the
different profiles and occurs in the curb profile at 8 and 7,
in the bar profile at 4, 5, 7 and 8, and in the ventilator pro-
file at 4 and 5.
With this understood, the patterns can be developed as
314 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
follows: For the curb place its stretchout 1 to 10 on a
vertical line as a, b. Draw horizontal lines through these
numbered points which intersect by lines projected up from
Fig. 205.
like numbered points in the profile, as shown. Note that
the glass line and measuring point is on line 8 and for the
layout of Fig. 202 ; two curbs would be cut with this miter
HIP SKYLIGHT PATTERNS 315
at both ends and six feet apart between the measuring
points. Also two curbs four feet long, with laps provided
all along the miter cut.
Sometimes for the want of room, patterns cannot be
projected like this directly from the profile and must be
developed elsewhere. Of course, a piece of paper could be
tacked over the drawing and near the profile, but in this
case the stretchout of the ventilator was placed on line
a b in Fig. 204, and the projection distances from the cen-
ter line in Fig. 203 carried to and placed from the line a b
in Fig. 204. This, then, is the one-half pattern for the
six-inch ends of the ventilator, and by doubling over on
line a b the full pattern is produced. For the two ends
laps should be allowed all along the miter cuts, and for the
sides of the vent cut two of these patterns without laps
and two feet, six inches between miter cuts on the measur-
ing point shown on line 5. Also on this line indicate by
a sharp punch mark the position of the common bars which
happens to be in the center, according to the layout of Fig.
202. Again, locate and punch the holes for the braces as
at c of Fig. 204, and speaking once more of the curb pat-
terns always locate the position of the bars on the glass
line by sharp punch marks.
The hood pattern is shown in Fig. 205 and is developed
by placing its girth or stretchout on a line as a b, 1 to 5 and
back to 1. Parallel to this line and at convenient distances
from line a b draw two lines as d e and f h. Take the
distance fromm the center line in Fig. 203 to point 4 and
place it from these two lines d e and f h in Fig. 205 as $xx
to 5* and 5' to 5". Indicate points 4' and draw the solid
lines as shown. The rest of the miter cut as 4' to 3' is a
straight line, then a line at 45 degrees from this point to
2' and 1', as shown. This, then, is the pattern for the hood
and brace holes should be located as at c and the distance
between measuring points, for the layout of Fig. 202 should
be two feet ten inches. The two heads or ends are devel-
316 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER
oped by reversing the miter at 4' 5*x and should measure
ten inches between miter cuts, and laps should be allowed
all around as shown dotted.
Before the common bar pattern is developed, it is neces-
sary to indicate on the vertical section the intersection of
the jack bar with the hip bar. Therefore, in Fig. 203 place
a line as PR below the bar profile and project the points
of the bar down to it so as to have the widths of the bar.
This line PR with these points is placed in a vertical posi-
tion as at P^R-^ also at P'R', at an angle of 45 degrees
as shown. Draw lines from P'R' at an angle of 45
degrees, which represents the hip bar in plan (only half
is needed). Intersect these lines by like lines drawn hori-
zontally from P-rR* and project these intersection points
to the vertical section which will indicate the intersec-
tion of the jack bar with the hip bar in elevation. Place
the girth of the bar on line k tn drawn at right angles to
the glass line in elevation and intersect the parallel lines
drawn at right angle to line k m and through the point
1 to 11, by lines projected as shown, from the vent profile,
the jack bar intersection and the curb profile. Then the
miter cut (with the laps shown dotted) X to X' is the
bottom cut for both the jack and the common bars, and
the cut Z to Z' is the miter cut of the jack bars to the
hip bars, while the miter cut W to W is for the common
bar connection to the ventilator. For the layout of Fig.
202, extend the miter cuts on the measuring cuts as much
as directed by the indicated lengths of the bars. Cap B
has no miter cuts and the caps over the jacks and common
bars would be laid out in the same manner as the bar
patterns were.
To lay out the hip bar patterns a view of it must be
obtained looking square at it along the arrow S in the
part plan of Fig. 203. To do that in the diagram of Fig.
203 would criss-cross so many lines that it would be con-
fusing, so a new elevation is drawn; that is, just as much
HIP BAR DEVELOPMENT
317
ELEVATION
GLASS LINE
OBLIQUE
ELEVATION
Fig. 206.
318 TIX, SHEET-IROX AXD COPPER-PLATE WORKER
as needed, in Fig. 206. From the glass line point 8, in the
curb profile, draw the horizontal line 8X, and then at an
angle of 45 degrees draw this glass line in elevation 8, 5,
as 8' 5', and by projecting lines to this from the different
points in the profiles of the ventilator and curb a plan
view of these parts is obtained, as shown. Place the line
PR (shown in elevation) in the plan as P^R-^, and draw
lines through its points to intersect the curb and ventilator
as shown, which will complete the plan view of the hip bar.
Parallel to the glass line in plan 8' 5', draw the base line
PATTERN OF HIP BAR
GLASS LINE AND
MEAS. POINT
MEAS. POINT—
Fig. 207.
of the elevation X8 as X282, and erect a line at right
angles to it from point X2 as shown. On this line place the
heights in elevation as X to \x , X to 2X and so forth and as
shown by X2 to I2, to 22 and so forth. At right angles
to line X2 62 draw lines from the points on it to inter-
sect like lines from the plan. Indicate these intersection
points by the characters a to b, and so forth. Draw glass
line 82 to e, and parallel to it draw lines from points a to /
which intersect by projector line from the curb point of
tke hip bar in plan which completes the oblique elevation
of hip bar and is a view of it along arrow S in Fig. 203.
HIP BAR PATTERN 819
The profile of the hip bar is modified in its relationship
to the profile of the common bar and its true profile is
obtained by this procedure. Place PR in elevation as
P'R' in the oblique elevation, and project lines upward to
intersect the proper lines as shown. Then, where these
lines intersect as 1 to 11, draw lines which will be the true
profile of the hip bar.
The pattern for the hip bar can now be laid out from
this oblique elevation by projecting to a stretchout as was
done for the common and jack bar, but for the want of
room it is developed in Fig. 207 by placing the stretchout
1 to 11 of the true profile in the oblique elevation, in line
a b and the usual parallel lines drawn through these points.
Draw a line as g h in the oblique elevation of Fig. 206,
and then measuring from it to the end, as, say, to 82,
carry the distances and place them from line a b in Fig. 207
as, say, 8 to 82, and do the same for the upper miter cut.
Fig. 207 is then the pattern for the hip bar, and only
those laps need be provided which are shown dotted. Note
where the glass line and measuring points are, and accord-
ing to the layout of Fig. 202, the distance between these
two measuring points is to be thirty-one and one-half
inches. The cap for the hip bar is developed precisely as
per the process for the hip bar.
It is well to remark that that part of the bar as 1, 2, 3 and
9, 10, 11 of Fig. 203, and 1, 2, 3 of the ventilator, and
4, 5, 6 of the curb, and 1, 2, 3 and 9, 10, 11 of the hip
bar of Fig. 206 are utilized to catch the drip from the con-
densation on the glass or a possible leakage of the putty
joint. Any water falling into this part of the bar will flow
to the curb, and holes should be punched at intervals be-
tween the bars at 6 of the curb so that these waters will
drain to the outside.
INDEX
Absorbent or radiating and reflect-
ing powers of substances, 150.
Acid, dipping, 246, 247.
Addition, sign of, 110.
Aich or sterro-metal, 225.
Air, 157-159.
density or weight of, 157, 158.
effects produced by, 157.
pressure of, 157.
specific heat of, 158.
table of the expansion of by
heat, 158.
Alcohol, 190.
Alloy, melting point of an, 223.
Alloys, characteristics of, 223.
fusing points of metals and
other elements employed in,
148.
important metallic, 223-235.
of copper and tin, 226-230.
of copper and zinc, 224, 225.
of copper, zinc and nickel, 230.
of the noble metals, 232.
readily fusible, 231.
various, 232-235.
Aluminium bronze, 229, 230.
bronze, solder for, 237.
solders for, 236, 237.
Amber, 188.
varnishes, 198-200.
American lap weld iron boiler
flues, 169.
Ammonia-shellac cement, 219, 220.
Angle at centre, definition of, 113.
at circumference, definition of,
113.
right, to trisect a, 99.
to bisect any given, 98.
Angles, table of, relative to the
construction of regular poly-
gons, 113.
Anime, 188.
Apparatus, impervious cement for,
222.
Aquarium stand, pattern for an,
53-56.
Aqueduct pipes or fountains,
calibre and weights of, 169.
Arc, definition of an, 114.
of a circle, to find the length
of any, 115, 116.
or segment of a circle of large
radii, to describe an, 101.
Arch, elliptic, to describe an, 102.
Architectural ornaments, cement
for making, 217.
Area and circumferences of circles,
127-134.
Argent an, 230.
Arithmetical signs, definition of,
110.
Armenian or diamond cement,
215, 216.
Art-bronze, 226.
Atmosphere, pressure of one, 157.
Balloons, varnish for, 209.
Band saws, small, to join, 239.
Bar for hipped skylight, design
and patterns for, 312.
Bars, absolute strength of, 264.
in hipped skylight, finding
length of, 310.
of metal, cohesive power of,
269.
Base, chimney, pattern for, 283.
to find the, 112.
Bath, hip or sitz, plan of a 20-23.
metal, 233.
oblong taper, plan of a, 18-20.
Beam, power of suspension of a,
267.
Beams, strength of, 262-264.
Bearing metals for locomotives^
232, 233.
Bell metal, 226, 232.
Bells of clocks, metal for, 232.
Belting, broken, to repair, 261, 262.
hose, etc., rivet metal for, 233.
Benzoin, 188.
Bifurcated object, circular at one
end and branching into two
smaller circular openings,
pattern for, 300.
Black grounds, 181, 182.
japan, 182, 184.
japan varnish, 210.
(321)
322
Black varnish, 200.
Blades, cement for fastening, 222.
Blanched copper, 234.
Blue japan grounds, 182.
Bodies, mensuration of solids and
capacities of. 119-122.
specific gravities of techni-
cally important, 146, 147.
Boiled oil or linseed-oil varnish,
208.
Boiler cover, oval, 89.
flues, American lap weld iron,
169.
Boilers, cement for, 217.
Boot, furnace, pattern for, 290.
offsetting furnace, pattern for,
296.
Borax for brazing, to prepare,
239.
Bottle corks, cement for, 218.
Branch "Y", pattern for, 300.
Brass and copper, galvanizing of,
254.
and copper, to tin, 252.
and similar alloys, 224, 225.
best lacquer for, 213.
best red, for fine castings, 232.
bronzed, lacquer for, 212.
cast, dipping acid for, 247.
cement for fastening, to glass
vessels, 222.
cohesive power of bars of, 269.
dipped, gold-colored lacquer
for, 212, 213.
dipped, lacquer for, 212.
etching solution for, 259.
good lacquer for, 213.
hard, for casting, 232.
lacquer, pale, 211.
not dipped, gold colored lac-
quer for, 212.
olive bronze dip for, 248.
or iron, bronze paint for, 248.
ormolu dipping acid for, 247.
ormolued, dipping acid for,
246.
pale lacquer for, 213.
red, for turning, 232.
red lacquer for, 213.
rolled, 232.
solder, soft, 240.
stamps, ink for, 261.
to temper or to draw its tem-
per, 151.
vinegar- bronze for, 247, 248.
weight of a square foot of,
171.
work, to prepare for ormolu
dipping, 247.
Brass, yellow, for turning, 232.
Brazing, borax to prepare for, 239.
Bridges, greatest load on, 262.
Bristol metal or Prince metal, 225.
Britannia metal, 230, 231, 233.
ware, raised, white solder for,
236.
British gum, or dextrine, 245.
Bronze, 226.
aluminium, 229, 230.
aluminium, solder for, 237.
art, 226.
cobalt, 228, 229.
dip, aquafortis, 248.
dip, brown, 248.
dip, green, 248.
dip, olive, for brass, 248.
for all kinds of metals, 248.
for gilding, 234.
manganese, 227, 228.
paint for iron or brass, 248.
paint, brown, for copper ves-
sels, 248.
phosphor, 227.
silicon, 227.
steel or Uchatius, 226.
upon tin and tin alloys, 249,
250.
vinegar, for brass, 247, 248.
Bronzing gas fixtures, 250, 251.
gun-barrels, 248.
plaster of Paris figures, 251.
Brown and Telford, experiments
by, 269.
hard spirit varnishes, 197.
Brunswick black, 182.
Building, pipe to fit the side of the
roof of a, 74, 75.
Bullet metal, 233.
Busts and statuettes, plaster of
Paris, to cleanse, 251.
Butt and mitre joints, 242.
Cabinet makers, varnish for, 200.
varnish, 195.
Cable chain, steel-linked, strength
and weight of, 274.
chains, breaking weight of,
272, 273.
Calico printing, coppering of iron
rollers for. 251, 252.
Can top or deck flange, to describe
a, 2, 3.
Carriages, varnish for certain
parts of, 200.
INDEX.
323
Casks and cisterns, cement for, 22 1 .
Casting, hard brass for, 232.
to obtain the weight of the,
from that of the pattern,
174, 175.
Castings, cement for holes in, 218.
fine, best red brass for, 232.
shrinkage of, 175,176.
Cast-iron cement, 249.
-iron, effect of remelting on
the strength of, 279, 280.
-iron, expansion of, 174.
-steel, composition used in
welding, 249.
Casts, compound for, 259, 260.
Cement, Armenian or diamond,
215, 216.
cheap, 218.
china, 218.
for bottle corks, 218.
for cast-iron, 249.
for cisterns and casks, 221.
for coppersmiths and engi-
neers, 218.
for cracks in wood, 221, 222.
for earthen and glassware,
216.
for electrical and chemical ap-
paratus, 217.
for fastening blades, files, etc.,
222.
for fastening brass to glass
vessels, 222.
for fractured bodies of all
kinds, 221.
for holes in castings, 218.
for iron pots and pans, 220,
221.
for iron tubes, boilers, etc.,
217.
for ivory, mother of pearl, etc.,
218.
for joining metal and wood,
222.
for feather, 220.
for making architectural orna-
ments, 217.
for marble workers and cop-
persmiths, 220.
for stoneware, 216.
for stone structures, 219.
gasfitters', 222.
good, 220.
impervious for apparatus,
corks, etc., 222.
Cement, iron-rust, 216, 217.
Keene's marble, 223.
London mastic, 222, 223.
Lowitz's, 223.
marble, 220.
Martin's, 223.
metallic, 238.
paint, hvdraulic.,222.
Parian, 223.
plumbers', 218.
roofing, 219.
Sorei's, 222.
Sorel's magnesia, 222.
transparent, for glass, 220.
varnish for water-tight luting,
200.
Cements, miscellaneous, 215-223.
Chains, strength of, 272-274.
Chemical and electrical apparatus
cement, 217.
Chimney base, pattern for, 283.
China cement, 218.
Chord, definition of a, 114.
Chrysochalk, 225.
Chrysorin, 225.
Circle, general rules in relation to
the, 114, 115.
of greater diameter in a tri-
angle, 106, 107.
of large radii, to describe an
arc or segment of a', 101.
or radius, to find the centre of
a, 100.
the, and its sections, 113, 114.
to draw a tangent to a, 100.
to draw lines tending towards
the centre of a, 100.
to describe a triangle in a, 99.
to inscribe any in a, 103.
to inscribe semicircles in a, 108.
to find the area of a segment
of a, 116.
to find the area of the sector
of a, 116.
to find the centre of a, 99.
to find the length of any arc
of a, 99, 100, 115, 116.
to find the diameter of a, 115.
to form a, equal in area to an
ellipse, 104.
to form a triangle, equal in
area to a, 105, 106.
Circles, concentric, area of space
between two, 117.
tables of the circumference
and area of. 127-134.
324
INDEX.
Circular ring, to find the area of
a, 117.
roofs, etc., covering of, 30, 31.
top and rectangle base, pattern
for a tapering article with,
44.
top and square base, pattern
for a tapering article with,
41, 42.
Circumference and area of circles,
tables of the, 127-134.
Cisterns and casks, cement for,
221.
Clocks, metal for bells of, 232.
Coach varnish, 200.
Coaches, fine black varnish for,
210.
Coachmakers, best body copal
varnish for, 195, 196.
Cobalt bronze, 228, 229.
Cock metal, 233.
Coffee pots, sizes of, 135.
Collar, roof, square to round,
pattern fop, 285.
Colophony, 188.
Coloring metals, cheap and quick
method of, 254, 255.
Colors and temperature in tem-
pering, 151.
Column, strength of a, 264.
Columns, strength of, 268.
Compasses and rule, to draw an
ellipse with the, 92, 93.
Cone, contents in U. S. standard
gallons of the frustum of a,
121.
frustum of a, sizes of tinware
in the form of, 135, 136.
Cone, frustrum of scalene, pattern
for, 303.
or pyramid, to find the con-
vex surface of a frustum of
a, 118.
or pyramid, to find the solidity
of a, 120.
pattern or envelope for a frus-
tum of a, 3, 4.
right, or pyramid, to find the
convex surface of a, 118.
to describe a frustum of a,
1, 2.
to describe an envelope for
a, 1.
to find the radius and versed
sine for a frustum of a, 95,
96.
to find the solidity of a frus-
tum of a, 120, 121.
Copal, 188, 189.
Copal polish, 196.
varnish, 180, 181.
varnish, best body, for coach-
makers, etc., 195, 196.
varnish for inside work, 195.
varnish, japanners', 184.
varnishes, 193-195.
Copper and brass, galvanizing of,
254.
and brass, to tin, 252.
blanched, 234.
bolts, weight of, 126.
cohesive power of bars of, 269.
silvering powder for, 246.
-tin alloys, 226-230.
to separate silver from, 249.
vessels, brown bronze paint
for, 248.
weight of, 125, 126.
weight of a square foot of, 171.
-zinc alloys, 224, 225.
-zinc alloys, color of, 225.
-zinc alloys, composition of
various, 225.
zinc and nickel, alloys of,
230.
Coppering of iron rollers for calico
printing, 251, 252.
Coppersmiths and engineers, ce-
ment for, 218.
and marble-workers, cement
for, 220.
Cords, hempen, strength of, 266.
Corks, impervious cement for, 222.
Cornice, OG, pattern for a mitre
joint for a, 50-52.
Cover or lamp top, octagon OG,
pattern for a, 52, 53.
or top, octagon or square, 90,
91.
or top, tapering octagon, pat-
tern for, 46, 47. h
steamer, to describe a, 91, 92.
Cramp joint, 243.
Crane chain, strength and weight
of, 273, 274.
Crushing load, average of different
materials, 280.
Crystal varnishes, 205.
Cubed, to be, sign of, 110.
Cubical form, solidity and capaci-
ty of any figure in the, 119.
Curb for skylight, design and
pattern for, 312.
Cylinder, hollow, strength of a, 264.
power of suspension of a, 267,
268.
Cylinder, to find the convex sur-
face of a, 118.
Cylinders, capacity of, in U. S.
gallons, 137-145.
to find the solidity of, 119, 120.
Cylindroid, definition of a, 37.
Dammar, 189.
varnish, 208.
Decimal equivalents of the frac-
tional parts of a gallon, 143.
equivalents to fractional parts
of lineal measurement, 108,
109.
Deck flange or can top, to describe
a, 2, 3.
Delta metal, 228.
Dextrine or British gum, 245.
Diameter of a circle, 113.
Diamond or Armenian cement,
215, 216.
Dippers, sizes of, 135.
Dipping acid, 246, 247.
Dish kettles and pails, sizes of,
. .135'
Division, sign of, 110.
Dome, to ascertain the outlines of
a course of covering to a, 33.
to cover a, 31, 32.
Double offsetting transition fitting
with square base and round
top, pattern for, 289.
Drills, to temper, 151, 152.
Driving boxes, locomotive brasses
for, 233.
Druggists' and liquor dealers'
measures, 136.
Duleau's and Tredgold's experi-
ments, 266.
Earthenware, cement for, 216.
Earths and stones, specific gravity
of, 146.
Elbow at right angles, 78, 79.
in five sections, pattern for an,
84-87.
in four sections, pattern for an,
82-84.
in three sections, pattern for
an, 80, 81.
pattern at any angle, 79, 80.
tapering, pattern for an, 87,
88.
Elbows, 78-88.
Electrical and chemical apparatus
cement, 217.
Electro-plating pewter surfaces,
255, 256.
Electrum, 230.
Elemi, 189.
Elements and metals, fusing points
of, 148.
Ellipse or oval, to describe an, 92.
or oval, to find the area of an,
117.
or oval, to find the circum-
ference of an, 117.
to draw an, with the rule and
compasses, 92, 93.
to find the centre and the two
axes of an, 94, 95.
to form a circle equal in area
to an, 104.
Elliptic arch, to describe an, 102.
Enamel for watch faces, 257.
Enameling metals, 256, 257.
Engineers and coppersmiths, ce-
ment for, 218.
England, manufacture of tin plate
in, 159-162.
Engravings, maps, etc., varnishes.
for. 204.
or lithographs, varnish to fix,
on wood, 204.
Envelope for a cone, 1.
Equality, sign of, 110.
Essence varnishes, 191.
Etching solution for brass, 259.
varnishes, 204.
Expansive metal, 234.
Eytelwein's experiments on the
strength of columns, 268.
Fairbairn and Hodgkinson, ex-
periments by, 269.
Figure having straight sides and
semicircular ends, to draw
a, 96.
right-lined, quantity of surface
in, 110, 111.
Files, cement for fastening, 222.
resharpening of, 261.
Fish-kettle, pattern for, 17, 18.
Fitting, double offsetting transi-
tional, with square base and
round top, pattern for, 289.
furnace boot, top an oval and
base a circle, pattern for,
290.
offsetting transition, with
square base and round top,
pattern for, 287.
transitional, having base rect-
angular and top circular,
situated off centre in respect
to base, pattern for, 287.
S26
Flange for a pipe, pattern for a,
89, 90.
Flat skylights, 305.
Flexible varnish, 207.
Floors, least load on, 262.
Fluids, specific gravity of, 147.
Folded angle joint, 242.
Fountains or aqueduct pipes, cali-
bre and weights of, 169.
French polish, to, 202, 203.
Fruit cans, sealing wax for, 246.
Frustum of a cone, 1,2.
of a cone, contents in U. S.
standard gallons of the, 121.
of a cone or pyramid, to find
the convex surface of a, 118.
of a cone, pattern or envelope
for a, 3, 4.
of a cone, sizes of tinware in
the form of, 135. 136.
of a cone, to find the radius
and versed sine for a, 95, 96.
of a cone, to find the solidity
of a, 120, 121.
of an oblique pyramid, to de-
scribe a, 23-28.
of a pyramid, solidity of the
121.
of a scalene cone, pattern for,
303.
Fusing points of metals and other
elements, 148.
Furnace boot, offsetting, pattern
for, 296.
pattern for, 290.
Furniture cream, 203.
gloss, 203.
oils, 203.
pastes, 203.
polishes, 203.
varnishes for, 201, 202.
Gallon, decimal equivalents of the
fractional parts of a, 143.
Gallons, capacity of cylinders in
137-145.
Galvanized iron, 166-169.
Galvanizing brass and copper, 254.
Gas bags, varnish for, 209.
fitters' cement, 222.
fixtures, to bronze, 250, 251.
pipes, diameter and length of,
172.
Geometry, practical, 97-109.
German silver, 230.
Germany, manufacture of tin
plate in, 162, 163.
Gilded articles, Watin's varnish
for, 200, 201.
Gilding, bronze for, 234.
Glass, cutting of, 244, 245.
transparent cement for, 220.
vessels, cement for fastening
brass to, 222.
Glassware, cement for, 216.
Globe or sphere, to find the con-
vex surface of a, 1 19.
Glue, marine, 245.
Glues, liquid, 245, 246.
Gold and silver lace, to polish,
257, 258.
Gold, artificial, 234, 235.
lacquer, 211.
solder for, 236.
solvent for, 249.
varnish, 209.
varnish, imitation of, 260.
Gravers, to temper, 152.
Gravity, specific, 145-147.
Green japan grounds, 183.
Gum copal, 180, 181.
Gun-barrels, browning of, 246.
-barrels, to bronze, 248.
-metal, 226.
-metal, cohesive power of bars
of, 269.
Gutta-percha varnish, 208.
Gutters, patterns for a mitre joint
for, 47-50.
semicircular, 166.
Harness, black varnish for, 208.
Heat, 147-150.
conducting power, internal,
of bodies, 149.
expansion of metals by, 149.
latent, 148.
specific, definition of, 147.
specific, of air, 158.
specific, of water, 156.
table of effects of, upon bodies,
149.
table of the expansion of air
by, 158.
unit of, 147, 148.
Hempen cords, strength of, 266.
rope, rule for finding the
weight capable of being sup-
ported by a, 266.
ropes, strength and weight of
275, 276.
Hip bar for skylight, true eleva-
tion of, 317.
Hip-bath or sitz-bath, plan of a,
20-23.
Hipped-roof, covering of a 33-40.
-skylight, patterns for, 310.
-skylight, scale layout of, 310.
INDEX.
S2T
Hodgkinson and Fairbairn, experi-
ments by, 269.
Hood, pattern of a, 28-30.
Hose, belting etc., rivet metal for,
233.
House painting and japanning;
wainscot varnish for, 209.
Hvdraulic applications, principle
of, 158.
Impressions, metal for taking, 233.
India-rubber varnishes, 206-208.
Ink for brass stamps, 261.
indelible, for stamps, 261.
red, for rubber stamps, 260.
Inks for marking tinware, 260.
Instruments, varnish for, 201.
philosophical, lacquer for, 213.
Iron and steel, brown tint for, 256.
and steel, soldering of, 239-
241.
and steel, varnishing articles
of, 197, 198.
cast and malleable, relative
strength of, 269.
cast, effect of remelting on the
strength of, 279, 280.
cast, expansion of, 174.
cast, strength of beams of 262.
cohesive power of bars of, 269.
flat rolled, weight of, 123, 124.
galvanized, 166-169.
or brass, bronze paint for, 248.
pots and pans, cement for,
220, 221.
rollers for calico printing,
coppering of, 251, 252.
round rolled, weight of, 124,
125.
-rust cement, 216, 217.
saucepans, to tin, 252, 253.
sheet, weight of a square foot
of, 171.
square rolled, weight of, 123.
tubes, cement for, 217.
wire ropes, strength of, 275.
work, black, 210.
work, black varnish for, 198.
work, varnish for, 198.
wrought, expansion of, 174.
wrought, strength of a bar of,
262.
wrought, weight of, 125, 126.
Ivory, cement for, 218.
Japan, black, 182-184.
black, for leather, 184.
finishing, 186, 187.
Japan, ground, white, 179, 180.
grounds, blue, 182.
grounds, green, 183.
grounds, purple, 183, 184.
scarlet, 182, 183.
19.
Japan, tortoise-shell, 184, 185.
transparent, 184.
work, painting of, 185.
Japanese lacquer, imitation of,
214, 215.
Japanners' copal varnish, 184.
Japanning and house painting,
wainscot varnish for, 209.
and varnishing, 178-187.
Joint, taper, pattern for, 303.
Joints, 241-244.
Journal boxes, metal for, 232.
Keene's marble cement, 223.
Lac, 189.
Lace, gold and silver, to polish,
257, 258.
Lacquer, 192, 193.
best, for brass, 213.
color for, 213.
deep gold-colored, 211, 212.
directions for making, 212.
for bronzed brass, 212.
for dipped brass, 212.
for philosophical instruments,
213.
for tin, 211.
gold, 211.
gold-colored, for dipped brass,
212, 213.
gold-colored, for brass not
dipped, 212.
good, 213.
good, for brass, 213.
Japanese, imitation of, 214,
215.
pale, for brass, 211, 213.
pale, for tin plate, 213.
red, for brass, 213.
red spirit, 211.
varnish, 211.
Lacquers, 211-215.
for pictures, metal, wood or
leather, 212.
soap, 213, 214.
Lamp top or cover, octagon OG,
pattern for, 52, 53.
Lamps, pipes for services for, 172.
Lap joint, 242, 243.
weld iron boiler flues, 169.
328
INDEX.
Latent heat, 148.
heat of various substances,
148.
Lead pipe, calibre and weight of
170.
Lead pipes, drawn, strength of
276, 277.
to recognize a content of, in
tin, 163.
weight of, 125, 126.
Leather, cement for, 220.
japan black for, 184.
lacquers for, 212.
varnish, 210.
Line, direct, to obtain the length
of any, 102, 103.
to bisect a, 97.
to divide a, into equal parts,
98.
Lineal measurement, decimal
equivalents to fractional
parts of, 108, 109.
Linseed oil, 190.
oil or boiled oil varnish, 208.
Lipowitz's alloy, 231.
Liquation, 224.
Liquor dealers' and druggists'
measures, 136.
Lithographs and paintings, var-
nishes for, 204.
or engravings, varnish to fix,
on wood, 204.
Load, average crushing, of differ-
ent materials, 280.
Locomotive driving boxes, brasses
for, 233.
side rods, brasses for, 233.
Locomotives, bearing metals for,
232, 233.
London mastic cement, 222, 223.
Lowitz's cement, 223.
Luting, water-tight, cement var-
nish for, 200.
Machines, ' models proportioned
to, 264, 265.
Mahogany varnish, 200.
Manganese bronze, 227, 228.
Mannheim gold, or similor, 225.
Manufacture of tin plate, 159-163.
Maps, engravings, etc., varnishes
for, 204.
Marble cement, 220.
workers and coppersmiths,
cement for, 220.
Marine glue, 245.
Martin's cement, 223.
Mastic, 189, 190.
cement, London, 222, 223.
Varley's, 217.
Mastic varnishes, 206.
Materials, different, table showing
the average crushing load
of, 280.
strength of, 262-281.
tables of strength of, 272-281.
Measurement, lineal, decimal
equivalents to fractional
parts of, 108, 109.
Measures, druggists' and liquor
dealers', 136.
sizes of, 136.
Mensuration of solids and capaci-
ties of bodies, 119-122.
of surfaces, 110-119.
Metal and wood, cement for join-
ing, 222.
cohesive power of bars of,
269.
expansive, 234.
for taking impressions, 233.
lacquers for, 212.
lateral strength of a beam or
bar of, 26jj, 264.
plate work, seams or joints
used in, 241-244.
Metallic alloys, 223-235.
Metals and other elements, fusing
points of, 148.
bronze for all kinds of, 248.
cheap and quick method of
coloring, 254, 255.
determination of the homo-
geneity of, 271.
enamelling of, 256, 257.
expansion of, by heat, 149.
list of, according to their
strength, 265, 266.
measuring the ductility of,
270, 271.
measuring the elasticity of,
270, 271.
measuring the stiffness of,
270.
method of testing, 269-271.
noble, alloys of the, 232.
pipes of various, to ascertain
weights and diameter ' of,
170, 171.
resilience of, 271.
specific gravity of, 146.
table of the strength, extensi-
; bility and stiffness of, 278.
table showing the tensile
strength of, 280, 281.
329
Metals, ultimate tensile strength
of, 271.
varnish for, 197.
weight of plates of, 173.
Methylated spirit of wine and
naphtha, 191.
Milk of wax, 205.
Mitre and butt joints, 242.
joint for an OG cornice, pat-
tern for a 50-52.
joint for gutters, patterns for
a, 47-50.
Models proportioned to machines,
264, 265.
Mosaic gold, 225.
Mother of pearl, cement for, 218.
Mouldings, circular, of galvanized
iron, 166-169.
Multiplication, sign of, 110.
Muntz metal, or yellow metal,
225.
Muriate of zinc, to make, 239.
Music metal, 233.
Naphtha and methylated spirit of
wine, 191.
Oak, strength of, 266.
varnish, cheap, 201.
Object, base a circle and top an
oval, pattern for, 290.
bifurcated, circular at one end
and branching into two
smaller circular openings,
pattern for, 300.
offsetting three-piece transi-
tional, round at base and
oval at top, pattern for, 296.
transitional, with base a rect-
angle and top a circle sit-
uated off center one way in
respect to base, 287.
transitional, with rectangular
base and circular top sit-
uated off center both ways in
respect to top, pattern for,
289.
with rectangular base and
circular top situated at an
angle in respect to the base,
pattern for, 295.
Objects, transitional, with base a
rectangle and top a circle,
situated centrally in respect
to base, patterns for, 283—
287.
Oblique elevation of hipped-sky-
light bar, 317.
pyramid, to describe a frus-
tum of an, 23-26.
Oblong or oval article, tapering.
patterns for an 13-17.
taper bath, plan of an, 18-20.
Octagon OG lamp top or cover,
pattern for an 52-53.
or square top or cover, 90, 91.
top or cover, pattern for a
tapering, 46, 47.
Offset, pattern for an 50-52.
Offsetting furnace boot, pattern
for, 296.
transitional fitting, double,
with square base and round
top, pattern for, 289.
transitional fitting, with
square base and round top.
pattern for, 287.
OG cornice, pattern for a mitre
joint for an, 50-52.
Oil paintings, varnish for, 204.
varnishes, 191, 192.
Orange-colored grounds, 183.
Oreide, 225.
Organ pipes, metal for, 233.
Ormolu, 234.
dipping acid for brass, 247.
dipping, to prepare brass work
for, 247.
dips, old nitric acid, to repair,
247.
Oval article, tapering, patterns
for, 4-13.
Oval boiler cover, 89.
egg-shaped, to draw an, 93, 94.
or ellipse, to describe an, 92.
or ellipse, to find the area of
an, 117.
or ellipse, to find the circum-
ference of an, 117.
or oblong article, tapering,
patterns for, 13-17.
Pails and dish kettles, sizes of,
135.
Paint for coating wire work, 244.
Paintings and lithographs, var-
nishes for, 204.
and pictures, beautiful var-
nish for, 204, 205.
Pakfong, 230.
Pans, sizes of, 135.
Parabola, to describe a, 101, 102.
INDEX.
Parallelopipedom, rule for finding
the lateral strength of, 266,
267.
Parian cement, 223.
Paste, razor, 244.
Patent strip over lap, 243.
Pattern, to obtain the weight, of
the casting from that of the,
174, 175.
Patterns, rules for describing,
1-96.
smooth moulding, varnish for,
210.
Perpendicular, to erect a, 97.
to find the, 111, 112.
Pewter, 233.
plate, 233.
surfaces, electroplating of, 255,
256.
Phosphor bronze, 227.
Pictures and paintings, beautiful
varnish for, 204, 205.
lacquers for, 212.
Pinchbeck, 225.
Pine wood, strength of, 266.
Pipe at any angle, the collar to be
set on side of the main pipe,
63, 64.
at any angle, collar to be smal-
ler than the main pipe, 61-
63.
at any angle, 57-59.
at right angles, 56, 57.
pattern for a flange for a, 89,
90.
Pipe, pattern for the T formed'by
a funnel-shape piece of a,
68-73.
reducing joint, pattern for,
303.
the collar to be smaller than
the main pipe, 59-61.
to fit a flat surface at any
angle, 73, 74.
to fit two flat surfaces, 74, 75.
Pipes, drawn lead, strength of,
276, 277.
for services for lamps, 172.
gas, diameter and length of
172.
lengths and diameters of, made
from tin-sheets, 166.
of various metals, to ascertain
weights and diameter of,
170, 171.
pattern for a T piece formed
by two, 64-68.
patterne for, 56-78.
Piping, tapering piece of, 75-78.
Plaster of Paris busts and statu-
ettes, to cleanse, 251.
of Paris fixtures, to bronze,
251.
Plates, butt joint for, 242, 243.
Platinum, to solder, 237, 238.
Plumbers' cement, 218.
Polish, copal, 196.
Polishes, furniture, 203.
Polygon, regular, to find the area
of a, 112.
to describe any, 103, 104.
to inscribe any, in a circle,
103.
Polygons, regular, table of angles
relative to the construction
of, 113.
Practical geometry, 97-109.
receipts, 178-262.
Pressure of air, 157.
of water, rule for finding the,
156.
one atmosphere of, 157.
Priming, pure white, for japan-
ning, 178, 179.
Prince metal or Bristol metal,
225.
Printers, size or varnish for, 206.
Pump, common, principle of the,
158, 159.
Purple japan grounds, 183, 184.
Pyramid, oblique, to describe a
frustum of an, 23-28.
P3Tamid or cone, to find the con-
vex surface of a frustum
of a, 118.
or cone, to find the solidity of
a, 120.
or right cone, to find the con-
vex surface of a, 118.
solidity of the frustum of a,
121.
Queen's metal, 233.
Radiating or absorbent and re-
flecting powers of sub-
stances, 150.
Radius of a circle, 113.
or circle, to find the centre of
a, 100.
Razor paste, 244.
Reading Iron Co., American lap
weld iron boiler flues, manu-
factured by the, 169.
i Receipts, miscellaneous, 244-262.
I practical, 178-262.
INDEX.
331
Rectangle base and circular top,
pattern for a tapering article
with, 44.
base and square top, pattern
for a tapering article with,
42-44.
to find the length for a, equal
to a square, 106.
to form a, in a triangle, 107.
to form a square equal in area
to a, 106.
top and base, pattern for a
tapering article with, 44, 45.
Reducing joint, pattern for, 303.
Reflecting and radiating or ab-
sorbent powers of sub-
stances, 150.
Reflector metal, 233.
Resilience of metals, 271.
Resins employed in the manufac-
ture of varnishes, 188-190.
Rivet metal, 233.
Riveted joint, 242.
Roof collars, square to round,
_ pattern for, 295.
hipped, covering of a, 33—40.
pipe to fit the side of a, 74, 75.
Roofing cement, 219.
Roofs, circular, etc., covering of,
30, 31.
least load on, 262.
Roll joint, 243.
Ropes, absolute strength of, 264.
hempen, strength and weight
of, 275, 276.
Ropes, iron wire, strength of, 275.
Rose's metal, 231.
Rubber, solvents for, 258, 259.
stamps, red ink for, 260.
Rule and compasses, to draw an
ellipse with the, 92, 93.
Rules for describing patterns,
1-96.
Rusting, to prevent, 246.
Sandarach, 190.
Saucepans, iron, to tin, 252, 253.
Saws, small band, to join, 239.
speed of, 176.
Scalene cone, frustum of, pattern
for, 303.
Scarlet japan, 182, 183.
Sealing wax for fruit cans, 246.
Sector, definition of a, 114.
of a circle, to find the area of
the, 116.
Seeds, specific gravity of, 147.
Segment, definition of a, 114.
or arc of a circle of large radii,
to describe a, 101.
to find the area of a, of a cir-
cle, 116.
Semicircle, definition of a, 114.
Semicircles, to inscribe in a circle,
108.
to inscribe within an equilat-
eral triangle, 107, 108.
Semicircular gutters, 166.
Sheet-iron, weight of a square foot
of, 171.
-lead, lap joint for, 242.
Shrinkage of castings, 175, 176.
Side rods, locomotive, brasses for,
233.
Silicon bronze, 227.
telegraph wire, 227.
telephone wire, 227.
Silver and gold lace, to polish^
257, 258.
German, 230.
leaf, 233.
solder, 236.
to separate, from copper, 249.
Silvering by heat, 248, 249.
mixture for, 249.
powder for copper, 246.
Silveroid, 228.
Similor, or Mannheim gold, 225.
Siphon, principle of the, 158.
Sitz-bath or hip-bath, plan of a,
20-23.
Size or varnish for printers, 206.
Skylights, flat, 305.
flat, design and patterns of
307.
flat, scale layout of, 306.
hipped, patterns for, 310.
hipped, scale layout of, 310.
Soap lacquers, 213, 214.
Soft brilliant varnish, 197.
Solder, hard, 240.
soft brass, 240.
soft, to color, 238, 239.
Solders, 235-241.
hard, 236.
soft, 235.
Solids and capacities of bodies,
mensuration of, 119-122.
Sorel's cement, 222.
magnesia cement, 222.
Specific gravity, 145-147.
heat, definition of, 147.
heat of different substances,
148.
Speculum metal, 226.
332
Speed of saws, 176.
Speeds, etc., rules for calculating,
176, 177.
Spelter, 236.
Sphere or globe, to find the convex
surface of a, 119.
to find the solidity of a, 122.
Spirit of wine, methylated, and
naphtha, 191.
varnish, white, 196.
varnishes, 191.
varnishes, brown, hard, 197.
varnishes, white, hard, 196.
Square article, tapering, patterns
for a, 40, 41.
base and circular top, pattern
for a tapering article with,
41, 42.
or octagon top or cover, 90, 91.
root, sign of, 110.
to construct a, upon a right
line, 104.
to find the length for a rect-
angle equal to a, 106.
to form a, equal in area to a
rectangle, 106.
to form a, equal in area to a
triangle, 104, 105.
top and rectangle base, pattern
for a tapering article with,
42-44.
Squared, to be, sign of, 110.
Stamps, brass, ink for, 261.
indelible ink for, 261.
rubber, red ink for, 260.
Stand, pattern for a, 53-56.
Statuary, bronze varnish for, 19S.
Statuettes and busts, plaster of
Paris, to cleanse, 251.
Steamer cover, to describe a, 91,
92.
Steel and iron, brown tint for,
256.
and iron, soldering of, 239-
241.
and iron, varnishing articles
of, 197, 198.
-bronze or Uchatius bronze,
226.
cast, composition used in weld-
ing, 249.
cohesive power of bars of, 269.
joints, solder for, 236.
Sterotype metal, 234.
Sterling metal, 225.
Sterro or Aich metal, 225.
Stone, lateral strength of a beam
or bar of, 26o, 264.
structures, cement for, 219.
Stones and varieties of earths,
specific gravity of, 146.
Stoneware, cement for, 216.
Straight joints, 242.
Strength of materials, 262-281.
of materials, tables of, 272-
281.
tensile, of metals, 280, 281.
tensile, of woods, 281.
Substances, radiating or absorbent
and reflecting powers of,
150.
various, weights of, 173.
Subtraction, sign of, 110.
Surfaces, mensuration of, 110-119.
Table varnish, 195.
Tables of strength of materials,
272-281.
of the circumference and are a
of circles. 127-134.
of weights, etc., 123-126.
Talmi gold, 225.
Tangent, to draw a, to a circle,
100.
Taper joint, pattern for, 303.
Tapering article with rectangle
base and circular top, 44.
article with rectangle base and
square top, 42-44.
article with rectangle top and
base, 44, 45.
article with square base and
circular top, 41, 42.
elbow, pattern for a, 87, 88.
octagon top or cover, pattern
for, 46, 47.
Tapering oval article, patterns
fof a, 4-13.
oval or oblong article, patterns
for, 13-17.
piece of piping, 75-78.
square article, patterns for a,
40, 41.
Tea trays, japanning old, 185,
186.
Telegraph wire, silicon, 227.
Telephone wire, silicon, 227.
Telford and Brown, experiments
by, 269.
Temperatures and colors in tem-
pering, 151.
Tempering, 150-153.
mixtures for, 152, 153.
333
Tensile strength of metals, 280,
281.
strength of woods, 281.
Testing metals, method of, 269-
271.
Thermometer, to temper by the,
151.
Timber, method of increasing the
suspensive power of, 268.
round power of suspension
of, 267, 268.
square, lateral strength of,
268.
Timbers, rectangular, strength of,
268.
strength of, to resist crushing
strains, 277, 278.
Tin and tin alloys, bronze upon,
249, 250.
cohesive power of bars of, 269.
lacquer for, 21 1.
plate, crystallized, 163, 161.
plate, manufacture of, 159-
163.
plate, pale lacquer for, 213.
plate, quality of, 163.
plates, lap joint for, 242.
plates, size, length, breadth
and weight of, 164.
roofing and tin work, 165.
sheets, lengths and diameters
of pipes made from, 166.
to recognize a content of lead
in, 163.
-ware, cleaning of, 258.
in form of frustum of a cone,
sizes of, 135, 136.
inks for marking, 260.
Tin work and tin roofing, 165.
Tinning, cold, 253.
small articles, 253, 254.
Tombac, 225.
Top or cover, octagon or square,
90, 91.
or cover, tapering octagon,
pattern for a, 46, 47.
Tortoise-shell japan, 184, 185.
Transparent japan, 184.
Tredgold's and Duleau's experi-
ments, 266.
Triangle, a circle of greatest dia-
meter in a, 106, 107.
equilateral, to inscribe semi-
circles within a, 107, 108.
to bisect a, 107.
to describe a, in a circle, 99.
to find the area of a, 111.
Triangle, to form a, equal in area
to a circle, 105, 106.
to form a rectangle in a, 107.
to form a square equal in area
to a, 104, 105.
right-angled, to find the third
side of a, 111.
Transitional object having base a
rectangle and round top
situated off center one way
in respect to base, pattern
for, 287.
objects, with base a rectangle
and top a circle situated
centrally in respect to base,
patterns for, 283-287.
three-piece offsetting object
round at base and oval at
top, pattern for, 296.
Triangles, diagrams of systems for
triangulation in pattern cut-
ting, 290.
diagrams- of systems of sec-
tions for triangulation pat/-
terns, 298.
Triangulation, problems in pat-
tern cutting solved by, 283—
305.
Tube, strength of a, 264.
Tubes, small, butt joints for, 242,
243.
Turpentine, 190.
Tutenag. 230.
Type metal, 234.
Uchatius or steel-bronze, 226.
Unit of heat, 147, 148.
Varley's mastic, 217.
Varnish, beautiful, for paintings
and pictures, 204, 205.
best body copal, for coach-
makers, etc., 195, 196.
black, 200.
black, for harness, 208.
black, for iron work, 198.
black japan, 210.
boiled oil or linseed oil, 208.
bronze, for statuary, 198.
cabinet, 195.
cheap oak, 201.
coach, 200.
common, 208.
common table, 195.
copal, for inside work, 195.
dammar, 208.
dark, for light woodwork, 201.
334
INDEX.
Varnish, fine black, for coaches
i- 210.
flexible, 207.
for cabinet-makers, 200.
for certain parts of carriages
200.
for coating metals, 197.
for instruments, 201.
for iron work, 198.
for leather, 210.
for oil paintings, 204.
for smooth moulding patterns,
210.
«• for the wood toys of Spa, 201.
for waterproof goods, 208.
for woodwork, 201.
gold, 209.
gold, imitation of, 260.
gutta-percha, 208.
mahogany, 200.
or size for printers, 206.
soft brilliant, 197.
table, 195.
to fix engravings or litho-
graphs on wood, 204.
Watin's, for gilded articles,
200, 201.
white, 196, 197.
white spirit, 196.
Varnishes, amber, 198-200.
copal, 193-195.
crystal, 205.
essence, 191.
etching, 204.
for ballons, gas bags, etc.,
209.
for engravings, maps, etc.,
204.
for furniture, 201, 202.
for oil paintings and litho-
graphs, 204.
India-rubber, 206-208.
Italian, 206.
mastic, 206.
miscellaneous, 187-210.
oil, 191, 192.
spirit, 191.
waterproof, 208, 209.
white, hard spirit, 196.
Varnishing and japanning, 178-
187.
iron and steel, 197, 198.
Ventilator for skylight, design and
patterns for, 312.
Versed sine, 114.
Vinegar bronze for brass, 247,
248.
Wainscot varnish, 209.
Wash bowls, sizes of, 136.
Watch faces, enamel for, 257.
Water, 153-156.
boiling points of, 154.
composition of, 153, 154.
expansion and contracton of,
154, 155.
in its natural state, effects
produced by, 156.
-proof varnishes, 208, 209.
rule for finding the pressure
of, 1 '6.
specific gravity of, 155.
specific heat of, 155.
weight of, 155.
Watin's varnish for gilded articles,
200, 201.
Wax, milk of, 205.
Weights, etc., tables of, 123-126.
Welding cast-steel, composition
used in, 249.
White, hard spirit, varnishes, 196.
japan ground, 179, 180.
metal, hard, 233.
metals, 233.
spirit varnish, 196.
White varnish, 196, 197.
Wire work, paint for coating,
244.
Wood and metal, cement for join-
ing, 222.
cement for cracks in, 221, 222.
lacquers for, 212.
lateral strength of a beam or
bar of, 263, 264.
toys of Spa, varnish for, 201.
Wood's alloy, 231.
Woods, list of, according to their
strength, 266.
specific gravity of, 147.
table of the strength, extensi-
bility and stiffness of, 279.
table showing the tensile-
strength of, 281.
Woodwork, light, dark varnish
for, 201.
varnish for, 201.
A'rought iron, expansion of, 174.
"Y" branch, pattern for, 300.
Yellow grounds, 183.
metal or Muntz metal, 225-
Zinc, to make muriate of, 239..
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AGRICULTURE
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ALLOYS
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ties, sympathetic inks, stamp and stencil inks, wash blue, etc. 5^
by 7J/2 Inches. Cloth Binding. 229 Pages. Price. $2.00
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., INC.
LATHE WORK
Manual of the Hand Lathe. By Egbert P. Watson.
Contains concise directions for working in the lathe all kinds
of metals, ivory, bone and precious woods ; dyeing, coloring a*nd
French polishing; inlaying by veneers, and various methods prac-
ticed to produce elaborate work with despatch and at small expense.
5 by 8 Inches. Cloth Binding. 136 Pages. 78 Illustrations.
Price $1.25
Turner's Companion.
The primary object of this volume is to explain in a clear,
concise and intelligent manner the rudiments of turning. It con-
tains instructions in concentric, elliptic and eccentric turning, with
directions for using the eccentric cutter, drill, vertical cutter and
circular rest. Patterns and instructions for working them, are
included. 5 by 8 Inches. Cloth Binding. 135 Pages. 14 Plates.
Price $1.35
LEATHER
Practical Tanning. By Louis A. Flemming.
As its title indicates, this volume is a practical and not a
theoretical or technical treatise, and the tannery processes are so
clearly described and with such precision that nothing further in
the way of explanation is required. It is the foremost book on that
subject published in any language, and describes fully the Ameri-
can practice for the treatment of hides, skins and pelts of every
description. It is a veritable cyclopedia of helpful and reliable
information on all branches of tanning, dressing and dyeing leather
and furs and allied subjects. 6J4 by 9% Inches. Cloth Binding.
594 Pages. 6 Full-Page Plates. Price $6.00
LOCOMOTIVES
American Locomotive Engines. By Emory Edwards.
This volume is a compilation of information and data on the
design, construction and management of the locomotive. It is a
practical book for the practical man. 5% by 8 Inches. Cloth Bind-
ing. 383 Pages. 78 Illustrations. Price $1.50
MARBLE WORKING
Marble-Workers' Manual. By M. L. Booth.
Designed for the use of marble-workers, builders and owners
of houses. Containing practical information respecting marbles
in general; their cutting, working and polishing; veneering of mar-
ble ; painting upon and coloring of marble ; mosaics ; composition
and use of artificial marble, stuccos, cements; receipts, secrets, etc.
51A by 7l/2 Inches. Cloth Binding. 254 Pages, i Folding Plate
containing 77 Illustrations. Price $i-75
MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL BOOKS. 9
MARINE ENGINEERING
American Marine Engineer. By Emory Edwards.
The writer of this volume has endeavored to prepare a clear,
concise and thoroughly practical work for marine engineers and
students; to treat each subject in as brief and concise a manner
as possible, and yet preserve that clearness and fullness of state-
ment so desirable in a work of this description. 5^4 by 8 Inches.
Cloth Binding. 440 Pages. 85 Illustrations. Price $200
Catechism of the Marine Steam Engine. By Emory Edwards.
A practical work for marine engineers and firemen, written in
simple, concise language by one of their number, who, knowing
from his own experience what they needed, knew also how to
supply that want. 5% by 8 Inches. Cloth Binding. 414 Pages.
60 Illustrations. Price $2.00
MECHANICS
English and American Mechanic. By B. Frank Van Cleve and
Emory Edwards.
The purpose of this volume is to serve as a handy reference
book for the manufacturer and to supply the intelligent workman
with information required to conduct a process foreign, perhaps, to
his habitual labor, but which at the time it may be necessary to
practice. It is an every-day handbook for the workshop and iactory,
containing several thousand receipts, rules and tables indispensable
to the mechanic, the artisan and the manufacturer. It is, in fact,
an encyclopedia of useful technical knowledge, its pages present-
ing an array of information indispensable not only to the practi-
cal manufacturer and mechanic, bdpalso to the amateur workman.
Sl/2 by 7^ Inches. Cloth Binding. 476 Pages. 85 Illustrations.
Price $2.30
METAL-WORKING
Complete Practical Machinist. By Joshua Rose.
One of the best-known books on machine shop work, now in its
nineteenth edition, and written for the practical workman in the
language of the workshop. It gives full practical instructions on
the use of all kinds of metal-working tools, both hand and machine,
and tells how the work should be properly done. It covers lathe
work, vise work, drills and drilling, taps and dies, hardening and
tempering, the making and use of tools, tool grinding, marking out
work, machine tools, etc. No machinist's library is complete with-
out this volume. 5^4 by 8 Inches. Cloth Binding. 504 Pages. 395
Illustrations. Price $3.00
Metal Worker's Handy-Book of Receipts and Processes. By Wil-
liam T. Brannt.
A valuable reference book for all engaged in the working of
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., INC.
metals, being a collection of formulas and practical manipulations
for the working of all the metals and alloys, including the decora-
tion and beautifying of articles manufactured therefrom, as well
as their preservation. It treats on alloys and amalgams ; harden-
ing, tempering, annealing; bronzing and coloring; casting and
founding; cements; cleansing, grinding, pickling, polishing; decorat-
ing, enameling, engraving, etching; electro-plating, brassing, cop-
pering, galvanizing, gilding, nicklrng, silvering, tinning, etc. ; fluxes;
and lutes; lacquers, paints and varnishes; solders and soldering;
welding and welding compounds. _ To the new edition has been
added several new chapters on die-casting, thermit, oxyacetylene
and electric welding, galvanizing, sherardizing, etc.. 5^/2 by Jl/2
Inches. Cloth Binding. 575 Pages. 82 Illustrations. Price. . .$3.00
Practical Metal- Worker's Assistant. By Oliver Byrne.
Comprising metallurgic chemistry, the arts of working all
metals and alloys, forging of iron and steel, hardening and tem-
pering, melting and mixing, casting and founding, works in sheet
metal, the processes dependent on the ductility of the metals, solder-
ing and the most improved processes, and tools employed by metal
workers, with the application of the art of electro-metallurgy to
manufacturing processes. An appendix, describing the manufacture
of Russian sheet iron, manufacture of malleable iron castings and
improvements in Bessemer steel, is included. 6l/z by pj4 Inches.
Cloth Binding. 683 Pages. 609 Illustrations. Price $3.50
Practical Tool-Maker and Designer. By Herbert S. Wilson.
An elementary treatise upon the designing of tools and fixtures
for machine tools and metal working machinery, comprising mod-
ern examples of machines with fundamental designs for tools for
the actual production of the work. The almost limitless varia-
tions in tool construction are based on a few fundamental forms,
and an effort has been made to present basic ideas in the design
of dies, jigs, special, fixtures, etc., to serve as a groundwork for
elaboration and variation according to conditions. 6J4 by 9/4
Inche$. Cloth Binding. 209 Pages. 189 Illustrations. Price.. $2.50
Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engineers. By Egbert
P. Watson.
Including the construction, application and use of drills, lathe
tools, cutters for boring cylinders and hollow work generally, with
the most economical speed for the same ; the results verified by
actual practice at the lathe, the vise, and on the floor. 5T4 by 8
Inches. Cloth Binding. 276 Pages. 86 Illustrations. Price. . .$2.00
MINERALOGY
Mineralogy Simplified. By Henry Erni and Amos P. Brown.
A handy volume, pocket size and form, for the prospector and
general mineralogist, giving easy methods of identifying minerals,
including ores, by means of the blowpipe, by flame reactions, by
MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL BOOKS. 11 v,
humid chemical analysis and by physical tests. To the fourth rev
vised edition has been added much entirely new matter, including
crystallography, tables for the determination of minerals by chemi-
cal and pyrognostic characters and by physical characters. 4^ by
&/4 Inches. Flexible Leather. 414 Pages. 123 Illustrations.
Price $2.50
MINING AND PROSPECTING
Prospector's Field Book and Guide. By H. S. Osborn.
The remarkable sale of this volume, now in its eighth edition,
indicates unmistakably the firm hold which it has on the confi-
dence of prospectors. It is a complete and thoroughly reliable
guide and companion to the intelligent and enterprising searcher
after ores and useful minerals, including gems and gem stones.
Instructions on the blowpipe and its uses and the analysis of ores
are given. A chapter on petroleum, ozokerite, asphalt and peat is
included, together with a glossary of terms used in connection with
prospecting, mining, mineralogy, geology, etc. It is the best book
that has been published on prospecting in any language. 5^4 by Jl/2
Inches. Cloth Binding. 377 Pages. 66 Illustrations. Price. . .$3.00
Underground Treasures: How and Whereto Find Them. By James
Orton.
This little work was written expressly for the landholder, the
farmer, the mechanic, the miner, the laborer, and even the most
unscientific. It is designed to enable such persons to discover for
themselves minerals and ores and thus .develop the resources and
ascertain the value of any particular farm or region. To enhance
the value and popularity of the book an appendix on ore deposits
and testing minerals with the blowpipe has been added to the pres-
ent edition. 5 by 6^ Inches. Cloth Binding. 211 Pages. Illus-
trated. Price $1.50
Practical Manual of Minerals, Mines and Mining. By H. S.
Osborn.
A practical manual for the mineralogist and miner, containing
suggestions as to the localities and associations of all the useful
minerals, full descriptions of the most effective methods for both the
qualitative and quantitative analyses of each of these minerals and
instructions on the various methods of excavating and Limbering,
including all brick and masonry work during driving, lining, brac-
ing and other operations. The practical work of digging and
boring artesian and other deep wells is fully described in an ap-
pendix. 6Yd by 9*4 Inches. Cloth Binding. 369 Pages. 171 Illus-
trations. Price $4.50
MOLDING AND FOUNDING
Practical Treatise on Foundry Irons. By Edwark Kirk.
In this volume it has been endeavored to give all usef1.1!, up-
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO, INC.
to-date data on the manipulation of foundry irons as actually prac-
ticed in foundries by both the old and new methods, and thus place
before the foundry, foundry foreman, molder and melter such a
variety of methods that he cannot fail to obtain the desired results
under any and all of the various conditions met with in the manipu-
lation of these irons. It is a practical book for foundrymen, treat-
ing fully on pig iron and fracture grading of pig and scrap irons ;
scrap irons, mixing irons, elements of metalloids, grading iron by
analysis, chemical standards for iron castings, testing cast iron,
semi-steel, malleable iron, etc. 6J4 by 9/4 Inches. Cloth Binding.
276 Pages. Illustrated. Price $3.00
Practical Brass and Iron Founder's Guide. By James Larkin.
A handy book for the use of the practical workman, treating
on brass founding, molding the metals and their alloys, etc. The
subjects covered include the properties of metals ; behavior of metals
and alloys in melting and congealing ; malleable • iron castings ;
wrought iron castings ; manufacture of steel castings ; casting of
brass; casting of bronze; modern methods of founding statues;
bell founding; chill-casting; new process of casting; autogenous
soldering; some modern bronzes. A complete and useful guide for
the workshop. 5^ by 7^ Inches. Cloth Binding. 394 Pages. 1 1
Illustrations. Price $2.50
Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide. By Fred Overman.
A practical treatise on molding and founding in green-sand,
dry-sand, loam and cement; the molding of machine in nes, mill-
gear, hollow ware, ornaments, trinkets, bells and statues ; descrip-
tion of molds for iron, bronze, brass and other metals ; plaster of
Paris, sulphur, wax, etc. ; the construction of melting furnaces ; the
melting and founding of metals ; the composition of alloys and their
nature, etc. To the latest edition has been added a supplement on
statuary and ornamental molding, ordnance, malleable iron cast-
ings, etc., by A. A. Fesquet. 5% by 7^ Inches. Cloth Binding.
342 Pages. 44 Illustrations. Price $2.00
Cupola Furnace. By Edward Kirk.
A practical treatise on the construction and management of
"foundry cupolas; comprising improvements on cupolas and meth-
ods of their construction and management ; tuyeres ; modern cupo-
las ; cupola fuels ; fluxing of iron ; getting up cupola stocks ; run-
ning a continuous stream ; scientifically designed cupolas ; spark-
catching devices ; blast-pipes and blast ; blowers ; foundry tram
rail, etc. 6% by 9^4 Inches. Cloth Binding. 459 Pages. 106 Illus-
trations. Price $4.00
PAINTING AND PAPER HANGING
Painter, Gilder and Varnisher's Companion. By William T.
Brannt.
This volume gives a clear, concise and comprehensive view of
MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL BOOKS. 13
the principal materials to be used and the operations to be con-
ducted in the practice of the various trades of painting, gilding,
varnishing, etc. It describes the manufacture and test of pigments,
the arts of painting, graining, marbling, staining, lacquering, japan-
ning, bronzing, polishing, sign-writing, varnishing, glass-staining
and gilding on glass, together with coach painting and varnishing
and the principles of the harmony and contrast of colors. Many
useful receipts on miscellaneous related subjects are included. 5J4
by 7^2 Inches. Clo*:h Binding. 395 Pages. 9 Illustrations.
Price $1.75
Paper-Hanger's Companion. By James Arrowsmith.
A very useful and practical handbook for the householder, as
well as for the paper-hanger, treating fully on the tools and pastes
required for paper hanging; preparatory work; selection and hang-
ing of wall papers; distemper painting and cornice-tinting; stencil
work; replacing sash-cord and broken window-panes, and useful
wrinkles and receipts. A new, thoroughly revised and much en-
larged edition. 5 by 7^/2 Inches. Cloth Binding. 150 Pages. 25
Illustrations. Price $1.25
Complete Guide for Coach Painters. By M. Arlot.
A practical guide for the practical man, containing full instruc-
tions on the painting and varnishing of coaches, cars, etc., as prac-
ticed in this country and abroad.
(New edition preparing.)
PERFUMERY
Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Perfumery. By C. Deite.
Contains directions for making all kinds of perfumes, sachet
powders, fumigating materials, dentrifices ; hair pomades, tonics,
dyes, etc. ; cosmetics and other toilet preparations, together with a
full account of the volatile oils and their testing; balsams, resins
and other natural and artificial perfume-substances, including the
manufacture of fruit ethers and tests of their purity. 5/4 by 7J4
Inches. Qloth Binding. 358 Pages. 28 Illustrations. Price $3.00
RAILROADS
Pocket-Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers. By Oliver Byrne.
Contains exact and concise methods for laying out railroad
curves, switches, frog angles and crossings ; the staking out of work,
leveling; the calculation of cuttings and embankments, earthwork,
etc. 4 by 6^4 Inches. Flexible Leather. 163 Pages. 79 Illustra-
tions. Price $1.75
Street Railway Motors. By Herman Haupt.
A brief review of plans proposed for motive power on street
railways, their merits and defects, with data on the cost of plant*
i4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., INC.
and operation of the various systems in use. 5*4 by 7^/2 Inches.
Cloth Binding. 213 Pages. Price $1.50
RECEIPTS
Techno-Chemical Receipt Book. By William T. Brannt and William
H. Wahl.
The principal aim in preparing this volume has been to give
an accurate and compendious collection of approved receipts and
processes of practical application in the industries and for general
purposes. In the laborious task of compilation only the latest and
best authorities have been resorted to, and whenever different pro-
cesses of apparently equal value of attaining the same end have
been found more than one has been introduced. Every care has
been taken to select the very best receipts of each kind and there
are few persons, no matter in what business or trade they may be
engaged, who will not find in this volume something of use and
benefit to them.
It is a compact repository o'f practical and scientific informa-
tion, containing thousands of receipts and processes covering the
latest and most useful discoveries in chemical technology and their
practical application in the useful arts and industries. Most of the
receipts have been practically tested by competent men before being
given to the public.
It is one of the most valuable handbooks of the age and indis-
pensable for every practical man. 5J4 by 7l/2 Inches. Cloth Bind-
ing. .495 Pages. 78 Illustrations. Price $2.50
RUBBER
India Rubber, Gutta-Percha and Balata. By William T. Brannt.
Covers the occurrence, geographical distribution, and cultiva-
tion of rubber plants ; manner of obtaining and preparing the raw
materials ; modes of working and utilizing them, including washing,
loss in washing, maceration, mixing, vulcanizing, rubber and gutta-
percha compounds, utilization of waste, balata and statistics of com-
merce.
(New edition preparing.)
SCIENCE
Home Experiments in Science. By T. O'Conor Sloane.
The experiments in this volume are such as can be performed,
with but few exceptions, with home-made apparatus. The book is
intended for both the young and old, and the experiments, which are
entertaining and instructive, cover mechanics, general and mole-
cular physics, soap bubbles and capillarity. Detailed ^instructions
in the necessary mechanical operations and illustrations of the
experiments and apparatus are given. 5*4 by 7^2 Inches. Cloth
Binding. 261 Pages. 96 Illustrations. Price $1.50
MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL BOOKS. 15
SHEET-METAL WORKING
Practical Work-Shop Companion for Tin, Sheet-Iron and Copper-
Plate Workers. By Leroy J. Blinn.
This is one of the most popular books on sheet-metal working
that has ever been published. It is a practical work of instruc-
tion and reference and contains rules for describing various kinds
of patterns used by tin, sheet-iron and copper-plate workers ; practi-
cal geometry ; mensuration of surfaces and solids ; tables of the
weights and strength of metals and other materials ; tables of areas
and circumferences of circles; composition of metallic alloys and
solders, with numerous valuable receipts and manipulations for
every-day use in the workshop. 5^4 by 724 Inches. Cloth Bind-
ing. 296 Pages. 170 Illustrations. Price $3.00
Sheet Metal Worker's Instructor. By Reuben H. Warn.
This volume, which has been well tried and well proven, still
enjoys great popularity among zinc, sheet iron, copper and tinplate
workers and others. It contains a selection of geometrical problems,
also practical and simple rules for describing the various patterns
required in the different branches of the above trades. To the
latest edition has been added considerable new matter of great
practical value on sheet metal work processes, including tools, joints,
solders, fluxes, etc., as well as geometry applied to sheet metal work,
which increases very much the usefulness of the book. The appen-
dix contains instructions for boiler making; mensuration of sur-
faces and solids ; rules for calculating the weight of different figures
of iron and steel ; tables of the weights of iron, steel, etc., and much
other valuable data. 6 by 9^4 Inches. Cloth Binding. 252 Pages.
32 Plates. 96 Illustrations. Price .'..'. $2.50
SIGN WRITING
Sign Writing and Glass Embossing. By James Callingham.
A complete, practical, illustrated manual of the art as prac-
ticed by the leading sign writers. The chief object of the book is
to assist the beginner in acquiring a thorough knowledge of sign
writing and glass embossing and to aid, with suggestions and in-
formation, those who, having had some practice, fall short of that
excellence which it is desirable to attain. The latest edition has
been enlarged by the addition of a new chapter on "The Art of Let-
ter Painting Made Easy," by James G. Badenoch, in which all the
necessary details in drawing letters are given with care and pre-
cision. 5*4 by 7H Inches. Cloth Binding. 258 Pages. Fully Illus-
trated. Price $1.75
SOAP
Soap Maker's Hand Book. By William T. Brannt.
The latest and most complete book published in the English
language on the art of soap making, and covers the materials,
i6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., INC.
processes and receipts for every description of soap. Practical and
comprehensive instructions on the modern methods employed in
their manufacture are given. In addition to the exhaustive direc-
tions for the manufacture of all kinds of soap both by boiling and
the cold and semi-warm processes, numerous formulas of stocks
available for the purpose are also included, as well as receipts for
washing powders, liquid soaps, medicated soaps and other soap
specialties. Nothing has been omitted in the preparation of this
comprehensive and exhaustive work. Everyone connected in any
way with the soap and allied industries should have this volume.
6/4 by 9/4 Inches. Cloth Binding. 512 Pages. 54 Illustrations.
Price $6.00
STEAM BOILERS
Steam Boilers. By Joshua Rose.
A practical treatise on boiler construction and examination for
the use of practical boiler makers, boiler users and inspectors, and
embracing in plain figures all the calculations necessary in design-
ing and classifying steam boilers. A study of this book will enable
any engineer, having an ordinary knowledge of decimal fractions,
to thoroughly understand the proper construction and determine the
strength of a modern steam boiler. 6J4 by 9% Inches. Cloth Bind-
ing. 258 Pages. 73 Illustrations. Price $2.50
STEAM ENGINEERING
Practical Steam Engineer's Guide. By Emory Edwards.
A practical guide and ready reference for engineers, firemen and
steam users, treating on the design, construction and management of
American stationary, portable and steam fire engines, steam pumps,
boilers, injectors, governors, indicators, pistons and rings, safety
valves and steam gauges. 5^4 by 8 Inches. Cloth Binding. 420
Pages. 119 Illustrations. Price $2.50
900 Examination Questions and Answers for Engineers and Fire-
men. By Emory Edwards.
This little book was not gotten up for the use of "experts" or
educated engineers, but, on the contrary, it was written for the
use and benefit of that great number of worthy and ambitious men
of limited education who run steam engines and desire to increase
their knowledge and better their positions by obtaining a U. S. Gov-
ernment or State License. The author has used the plain, every-
day language of the engine and fire-room in a conversational way
so that anyone can understand it. 3l/4 by 5^ Inches. Flexible Cloth.
240 Pages. 15 Illustrations. Price $1.50
American Steam Engineer. By Emory Edwards.
A theoretical and practical treatise for the use of engineers,
machinists, boiler makers and students, containing much informa-
tion and data on the design and construction of engines and boilers.
5%.
Pri
MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL BOOKS. 17
'by 8 Inches. Cloth Binding. 419 Pages. 77 Illustrations.
Price ....................... ................................. $2.00
Slide Valve Practically Explained. By Joshua Rose.
Contains simple and complete practical demonstrations of the
operation of each element in a slide-valve movement, and illus-
trating the effects of variations in their proportions, by examples
carefully selected from the most recent and successful practice.
The object of this book is to present to practical men a clear ex-
planation of the operations of a slide valve under the conditions
in which it is found in actual practice. 5/4 by 7l/2 Inches. Cloth
Binding. 100 Pages. 35 Illustrations. Price ................ $1.25
STEEL AND IRON
Tool-Steel. By Otto Thallner.
A concise handbook on tool-steel in general, its treatment in
the operations of forging, annealing, hardening, tempering, etc.,
and the appliances therefor. It is chiefly intended as a guide to
the master-workman and the intelligent tool-maker, and, in ac-
cordance with this object, is exclusively adapted to practical needs.
The directions and working appliances collected in this vol-
ume have all been taken from actual practice and tell exactly
how the work is to be done. 6% by 9% Inches. Cloth Binding.
180 Pages. 69 Illustrations. Price .......................... $2.00
Tables Showing the Weight of Different Lengths of Round, Square
and Flat Bar Iron, Steel, etc.
This little book gives tables showing the weight of square
iron from %. inch to 5 inches square, I to 18 feet long; weight of
round iron J4 inch to 5 inches diameter, I to 18 feet long; weight
of flat iron % inch to I inch thick, i to 18 feet long, and other
tables. 5^4 by 3^4 Inches. Cloth Binding. 83 Pages. Price ---- 750
SURVEYING
Practical Surveyor's Guide. By Andrew Duncan.
A concise and practical work containing the necessary infor-
mation to make any person of common capacity a finished land sur-
veyor without the aid of a teacher. It gives to the learner the re-
quired instructions in a clear and simple manner, unburdened with
unnecessary matter. 5% by 7^2 Inches. Cloth Binding. 214
Pages. 72 Illustrations. Price ............................... $1.75
TEXTILES
Manufacture of Narrow Woven Fabrics. By E. A. Posselt.
Gives description of the various yarns used, the construction
of weaves and novelties in fabric structure, descriptive matter as
to looms, etc. 5 by 7^2 Inches. Cloth Binding. 198 Pages. 247
Illustrations. Price ......................................... $2.00
18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., INC.
Recent Improvements in Textile Machinery Relating to Weaving.
By E. A. Posselt.
A treatise giving descriptive illustrations of the construction
and operation of various looms, jacquards, warpers, beamers, slash-
ers, spoolers, etc., also illustrating and explaining different makes
of shuttles, temples, pickers, reeds, heddles, harness, etc. Designed
for the use of manufacturers, mill managers, designers, boss weav-
ers, loom fixers, students and inventors. 2 Volumes. 8 by n
Inches. Cloth Binding. Part I, 184 Pages. 600 Illustrations. Part
II, 174 Pages. 600 Illustrations. Price, per volume $3.00
Wool, Cotton, Silk. By E. A. Posselt.
This work contains detail information as to the various ma-
chines and processes used in the manufacture of either wool, cot-
ton or silk from the raw material to the finished fabric, and covers
both woven and knit goods. 8 by n Inches. Cloth Binding. 409
Pages. Fully Illustrated. Price $5.00
Textile Calculations. By E. A. Posselt.
A complete guide to calculations relating to the construction
of all kinds of yarns and fabrics, the analysis of cloth, speed,
power and belt calculations. 8 by II Inches. Cloth Binding. 138
Pages. 74 Illustrations. Price $2.00
Dictionary of Weaves. Part I. By E. A. Posselt.
A collection of all weaves from four to nine harness. The
weaves, which number two thousand, are conveniently arranged for
handy use. 5 by 7^ Inches. Cloth Binding. 85 Pages. Fully Il-
lustrated. Price $2.00
Technology of Textile Design. By E. A. Fosselt.
A practical treatise on the construction and application of
weaves for all kinds of textile fabrics, giving also full particulars
as to the analysis of cloth. 8 by n Inches. Cloth Binding. 324
Pages. 1,500 Illustrations. Price $5.00
Cotton Manufacturing. By E. A. Posselt.
A complete treatise on modern processes and machinery used
in connection with cotton spinning, including all calculations.
Part I. — Gives a complete description of the manufacture of
cotton yarns from planting the seed to the sliver, ready for the
drawing or combing; covering; fibre, ginning, mixing, picking,
scutching and carding. 190 Pages. 104 Illustrations.
Part II. — Covers combing, drawing, roller covering and fly
frames. 292 Pages. Fully Illustrated.
&A by 9^2 Inches. Cloth Binding. Price, per volume $3.00
MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL BOOKS. 19
VARNISHES
Varnishes, Lacquers, Printing Inks and Sealing-Waxes. By Wil-
liam T. Brannt.
The manufacturer, skilled mechanic, amateur and others de-
siring detailed and reliable information regarding the preparation
of fat and volatile varnishes, lacquers, printing inks and sealing-
waxes will find the required instructions in this volume. A de-
scription of the properties of the raw materials used and simple
methods of testing them are given. An appendix on the art of
varnishing and lacquering has also been added in which will be
found a large number of valuable receipts for putties, stains for
wood, tone, ivory, etc. 5^4 by 7^2 Inches. Cloth Binding. 338
Pages. 39 Illustrations. Price $3.00
VINEGAR
Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar. By William
T. Brannt.
In this, the third edition, while the same arrangement of the
book has been adhered to as in the previous edition, it has been
thoroughly revised and largely rewritten, obsolete matter having
been entirely eliminated and new matter introduced. It is the most
complete and up-to-date book published on the subject, and de-
scribes fully and in detail the various present-day processes for
the manufacture of vinegar, with special reference to wood vinegar
and other by-products obtained in the destructive distillation of
wood, as well as the preparation o'f acetates. It also treats fully
on the manufacture of cider and fruit-wines ; preservation of fruits
and vegetables by canning and evaporation ; preparation of fruit-
butters, jellies, marmalades, pickles, mustards, etc., and the preser-
vation of meat, fish and eggs. A practical and indispensable book
for everyone connected in any way with these industries. 6l/4 by
9 } 4 Inch f.f,- Cloth Binding. 543 Pages. 101 Illustrations, Price ... $6.00
University of California
SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY
305 De Neve Drive - Parking Lot 17 • Box 951388
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90095-1388
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